DEM–FDM coupled analysis of composite element test for geogrid-reinforced ballast under cyclic loading

Abstract

The application of reinforcing geogrid is a simple, cost-effective method for reducing permanent deformation in the ballast layer. Understanding the behavior of the ballast/geogrid system can lead to improved railway design and lower maintenance. A composite element test (CET), under simplified full-scale field conditions, was simulated by coupling discrete element method and the finite difference method. This study investigated the dynamic response and deformation behavior of geogrid-reinforced ballast under cyclic loading, focusing on variations in subgrade stiffness, geogrid location, and boundary conditions within the CET. Results indicate that greater subgrade stiffness increases the compressive force borne by the subgrade. Conversely, as subgrade stiffness decreases, the upper load is more evenly distributed to the bottom. The deployment of geogrids effectively constrains ballast particles, disperses upper loads, and reduces contact force at the model base, thereby minimizing sleeper settlement. Moreover, geogrid reinforcement is more significant for soft subgrade than for stiff subgrade. Simultaneously, the sleeper settlement under confined conditions is significantly smaller than that under unconfined condition. These results contributed to a comprehensive analysis of the mechanical properties of ballasted bed under dynamic loads, offering insights from both micro and macroperspectives. Additionally, the study clarifies the mechanism of geogrid-reinforced ballast, offering valuable insights for practical geogrid applications.

Keywords

Geogrid reinforcement / Ballast settlement / DEM–FDM coupled method / Composite element test / Subgrade stiffness

References

[1] Danesh A, Palassi M, Mirghasemi AA. Effect of sand and clay fouling on the shear strength of railway ballast for different ballast gradations. Granul Matter, 2018, 20(3): 51

[2] Deng J, Liu X, Jing G, et al. . Probabilistic risk analysis of flying ballast hazard on high-speed rail lines. Transp Res Part C Emerg Technol, 2018, 93: 396-409

[3] Gu Q, Zhao C, Bian X, et al. . Trackbed settlement and associated ballast degradation due to repeated train moving loads. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng, 2022, 153 107109

[4] Zheng SF, Liu Y, Zhang N, et al. . Experimental studies on shape and size effects on particle breakage of railway ballast. Transp Geotech, 2022, 37 100883

[5] Raymond GP. Reinforced ballast behaviour subjected to repeated load. Geotext Geomembr, 2002, 20(1): 39-61

[6] Stickley P, McDowell G. Performance of geogrid-reinforced ballast. Ground Eng, 2006, 39(1): 26-30

[7] Penman J, Kwon J (2009) The use of biaxial geogrids for enhancing the performance of sub-ballast and ballast layers—previous experience and research. Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields. CRC Press, Boca Raton

[8] Sweta K, Hussaini SKK. Role of particle breakage on damping, resiliency and service life of geogrid-reinforced ballasted tracks. Transp Geotech, 2022, 37 100828

[9] Bathurst RJ, Raymond GP. Geogrid reinforcement of ballasted track. Transp Res Rec, 1987, 1153: 8-14

[10] Brown SF, Thom N, Kwan J (2006) Optimising the geogrid reinforcement of rail track ballast. Railfound Conf:346–354

[11] Brown SF, Kwan J, Thom NH. Identifying the key parameters that influence geogrid reinforcement of railway ballast. Geotext Geomembr, 2007, 25(6): 326-335

[12] Hussaini SKK, Indraratna B, Vinod JS. Performance assessment of geogrid-reinforced railroad ballast during cyclic loading. Transp Geotech, 2015, 2: 99-107

[13] Indraratna B, Ngo NT, Rujikiatkamjorn C. Deformation of coal fouled ballast stabilized with geogrid under cyclic load. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng, 2013, 139(8): 1275-1289

[14] Chen C, Indraratna B, McDowell G, et al. . Discrete element modelling of lateral displacement of a granular assembly under cyclic loading. Comput Geotech, 2015, 69: 474-484

[15] Sadeghi J, Tolou Kian AR, Ghiasinejad H, et al. . Effectiveness of geogrid reinforcement in improvement of mechanical behavior of sand-contaminated ballast. Geotext Geomembr, 2020, 48(6): 768-779

[16] Luo Z, Zhao C, Bian X, et al. . Discrete element analysis of geogrid-stabilized ballasted tracks under high-speed train moving loads. Comput Geotech, 2023, 159 105451

[17] Ferellec J-F, McDowell GR. Modelling of ballast–geogrid interaction using the discrete-element method. Geosynth Int, 2012, 19(6): 470-479

[18] Chen C, McDowell GR, Thom NH. Investigating geogrid-reinforced ballast: experimental pull-out tests and discrete element modelling. Soils Found, 2014, 54(1): 1-11

[19] Fu J, Li J, Chen C, et al. . DEM–FDM coupled numerical study on the reinforcement of biaxial and triaxial geogrid using pullout test. Appl Sci Basel, 2021, 11(19): 9001

[20] Chen C, McDowell GR, Thom NH. Discrete element modelling of cyclic loads of geogrid-reinforced ballast under confined and unconfined conditions. Geotext Geomembr, 2012, 35: 76-86

[21] Ngo NT, Indraratna B, Rujikiatkamjorn C. DEM simulation of the behaviour of geogrid stabilised ballast fouled with coal. Comput Geotech, 2014, 55: 224-231

[22] Ngo NT, Indraratna B, Rujikiatkamjorn C. Modelling geogrid-reinforced railway ballast using the discrete element method. Transp Geotech, 2016, 8: 86-102

[23] Miao CX, Zheng JJ, Zhang RJ, et al. . DEM modeling of pullout behavior of geogrid reinforced ballast: the effect of particle shape. Comput Geotech, 2017, 81: 249-261

[24] Chen W, Zhang Y, Wang C, et al. . Effect of ballast pockets and geogrid reinforcement on ballasted track: numerical analysis. Transp Geotech, 2023, 42 101108

[25] Chen C, McDowell GR, Thom NH. A study of geogrid-reinforced ballast using laboratory pull-out tests and discrete element modelling. Geomech Geoengin, 2013, 8(4): 244-253

[26] Chen C, McDowell G, Rui R. Discrete element modelling of geogrids with square and triangular apertures. Geomech Eng, 2018, 16: 495-501

[27] Tran VDH, Meguid MA, Chouinard LE. A finite–discrete element framework for the 3D modeling of geogrid–soil interaction under pullout loading conditions. Geotext Geomembr, 2013, 37: 1-9

[28] Hussein MG, Meguid MA. A three-dimensional finite element approach for modeling biaxial geogrid with application to geogrid-reinforced soils. Geotext Geomembr, 2016, 44(3): 295-307

[29] Tano BFG, Stoltz G, Touze-Foltz N, et al. . A numerical modelling technique for geosynthetics validated on a cavity model test. Geotext Geomembr, 2017, 45(4): 339-349

[30] Tran QA, Villard P, Dias D. Geosynthetic reinforced piled embankment modeling using discrete and continuum approaches. Geotext Geomembr, 2021, 49(1): 243-256

[31] Tizpa P, Jamshidi Chenari R, Payan M. PFC/FLAC 3D coupled numerical modeling of shallow foundations seated on reinforced granular fill overlying clay with square void. Comput Geotech, 2023, 161 105574

[32] Xiao H, Chi Y, Zhao W, et al. . Multi-parameter DEM calibration for sand-containing railway ballast using particle scaling and response surface optimization. Comput Part Mech, 2025, 12(5): 4037-4054

[33] Zhao H-Y, Indraratna B, Ngo T. Numerical simulation of the effect of moving loads on saturated subgrade soil. Comput Geotech, 2021, 131 103930

[34] Abu Sayeed M, Shahin MA. Dynamic response analysis of ballasted railway track–ground system under train moving loads using 3D finite element numerical modelling. Transp Infrastruct Geotechnol, 2023, 10(4): 639-659

[35] Krishnamoorthy RR, Saleheen Z, Effendy A, et al. . The effect of rubber pads on the stress distribution for concrete railway sleepers. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng, 2018, 431(11): 112007

[36] Ali Zakeri J, Esmaeili M, Kasraei A, et al. . A numerical investigation on the lateral resistance of frictional sleepers in ballasted railway tracks. Proc Inst Mech Eng F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2016, 230(2): 440-449

[37] Aela P, Powrie W, Harkness J, et al. . Discrete element modelling of railway ballast problems: an overview. Arch Comput Meth Eng, 2025, 32(4): 2149-2185

[38] Li T, Gao Y, Zhong Y, et al. . Coupled DEM–FDM study on the dynamic performance of ballast-subgrade system under cyclic axle loading. Transp Geotech, 2026, 56 101737

[39] Chen J, Vinod JS, Indraratna B, et al. . DEM study on the dynamic responses of a ballasted track under moving loading. Comput Geotech, 2023, 153 105105

[40] Miao C, Jia Y, Zhang J, et al. . DEM simulation of the pullout behavior of geogrid-stabilized ballast with the optimization of the coordination between aperture size and particle diameter. Constr Build Mater, 2020, 255 119359

[41] Wang Z, Xia Q, Yang G, et al. . Effects of transverse members on geogrid pullout behavior considering rigid and flexible top boundaries. Geotext Geomembr, 2023, 51(4): 72-84

[42] Jia Y, Zhang J, Chen X, et al. . DEM study on shear behavior of geogrid-soil interfaces subjected to shear in different directions. Comput Geotech, 2023, 156 105302

[43] Mukherjee S, Sivakumar Babu GL. Three-dimensional numerical modeling of geogrid reinforced foundations. Comput Geotech, 2023, 158 105397

Funding

Sanya Science and Education Innovation Park of Wuhan University of Technology(2022KF0025)

National Natural Science Foundation of China(51708438)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)