Control of synthetic gene networks and its applications
David J Menn, Ri-Qi Su, Xiao Wang
Control of synthetic gene networks and its applications
Background: One of the underlying assumptions of synthetic biology is that biological processes can be engineered in a controllable way.
Results: Here we discuss this assumption as it relates to synthetic gene regulatory networks (GRNs). We first cover the theoretical basis of GRN control, then address three major areas in which control has been leveraged: engineering and analysis of network stability, temporal dynamics, and spatial aspects.
Conclusion: These areas lay a strong foundation for further expansion of control in synthetic GRNs and pave the way for future work synthesizing these disparate concepts.
synthetic biology / gene regulatory networks / modeling / GRN control / stochasticity
[1] |
Antoni, D., Zverlov, V. V. and Schwarz, W. H. (2007) Biofuels from microbes. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 77, 23–35
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[2] |
Dellomonaco, C., Fava, F. and Gonzalez, R. (2010) The path to next generation biofuels: successes and challenges in the era of synthetic biology. Microb. Cell Fact., 9, 3
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[3] |
Harrison, M. E. and Dunlop, M. J. (2012) Synthetic feedback loop model forincreasing microbial biofuel production using a biosensor. Front. Microbio., 3, 360
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[4] |
Krom, R. J., Bhargava, P., Lobritz, M. A. and Collins, J. J. (2015) Engineered phagemids for nonlytic, targeted antibacterial therapies. Nano Lett., 15, 4808–4813
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[5] |
Sufya, N., Allison, D. and Gilbert, P. (2003) Clonal variation in maximum specific growth rate and susceptibility towards antimicrobials. J. Appl. Microbiol., 95, 1261–1267
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[6] |
de Lorenzo, V. (2008) Systems biology approaches to bioremediation. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 19, 579–589
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[7] |
Martin, V. J. J., Pitera, D. J., Withers, S. T., Newman, J. D. and Keasling, J. D. (2003) Engineering a mevalonate pathway in Escherichia coli for production of terpenoids. Nat. Biotechnol., 21, 796–802
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[8] |
Ellis, T., Adie, T. and Baldwin, G. S. (2011) DNA assembly for synthetic biology: from parts to pathways and beyond. Integr. Biol., 3, 109
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[9] |
Gibson, D. G., Young, L., Chuang, R.-Y., Venter, J. C., Hutchison, C. A. and Smith, H. O. (2009) Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases. Nat. Methods, 6, 343–345
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[10] |
Densmore, D., Hsiau, T. H. C., Kittleson, J. T., DeLoache, W., Batten, C. and Anderson, J. C. (2010) Algorithms for automated DNA assembly. Nucleic Acids Res., 38, 2607–2616
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[11] |
Shendure, J. and Ji, H. (2008) Next-generation DNA sequencing. Nat. Biotechnol., 26, 1135–1145
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[12] |
Chavez, A., Scheiman, J., Vora, S., Pruitt, B. W., Tuttle, M., Iyer, E. P. R., Lin, S., Kiani, S., Guzman, C. D., Wiegand, D. J.,
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[13] |
Kiani, S., Beal, J., Ebrahimkhani, M. R., Huh, J., Hall, R. N., Xie, Z., Li, Y. and Weiss, R. (2014) CRISPR transcriptional repression devices and layered circuits in mammalian cells. Nat. Methods, 11, 723–726
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[14] |
Standage-Beier, K., Zhang, Q. and Wang, X. (2015) Targeted large-scale deletion of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-nickases. ACS Synth. Biol., 4, 1217–1225
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[15] |
Guido, N. J., Wang, X., Adalsteinsson, D., McMillen, D., Hasty, J., Cantor, C. R., Elston, T. C. and Collins, J. (2006) A bottom-up approach to gene regulation. Nature, 439, 856–860
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[16] |
Stricker, J., Cookson, S., Bennett, M. R., Mather, W. H., Tsimring, L. S. and Hasty, J. (2008) A fast, robust and tunable synthetic gene oscillator. Nature, 456, 516–519
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[17] |
Elowitz, M. B. and Leibler, S. (2000) A synthetic oscillatory network of transcriptional regulators. Nature, 403, 335–338
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[18] |
Gardner, T. S., Cantor, C. R. and Collins, J. J. (2000) Construction of a genetic toggle switch in Escherichia coli. Nature, 403, 339–342
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[19] |
Wang, L.-Z., Wu, F., Flores, K., Lai, Y.-C. and Wang, X. (2016) Build to understand: synthetic approaches to biology. Integr. Biol., 8, 394–408
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[20] |
Shimizu, Y., Inoue, A., Tomari, Y., Suzuki, T., Yokogawa, T., Nishikawa, K. and Ueda, T. (2001) Cell-free translation reconstituted with purified components. Nat. Biotechnol., 19, 751–755
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[21] |
Pardee, K., Green, A. A., Takahashi, M. K., Braff, D., Lambert, G., Lee, J. W., Ferrante, T., Ma, D., Donghia, N., Fan, M.,
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[22] |
Elowitz, M. B., Levine, A. J., Siggia, E. D. and Swain, P. S. (2002) Stochastic gene expression in a single cell. Science, 297, 1183–1186
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[23] |
Wu, F., Menn, D. J. and Wang, X. (2014) Quorum-sensing crosstalk-driven synthetic circuits: from unimodality to trimodality. Chem. Biol., 21, 1629–1638
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[24] |
Wu, M., Su, R.-Q., Li, X., Ellis, T., Lai, Y.-C. and Wang, X. (2013) Engineering of regulated stochastic cell fate determination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 110, 10610–10615
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[25] |
Xiong, W. and Ferrell, J. E. Jr. (2003) A positive-feedback-based bistable “memory module” that governs a cell fate decision. Nature, 426, 460–465
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[26] |
Ellis, T., Wang, X. and Collins, J. J. (2009) Diversity-based, model-guided construction of synthetic gene networks with predicted functions. Nat. Biotechnol., 27, 465–471
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[27] |
Potvin-Trottier, L., Lord, N. D., Vinnicombe, G. and Paulsson, J. (2016) Synchronous long-term oscillations in a synthetic gene circuit. Nature, 538, 514–517
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[28] |
Basu, S., Gerchman, Y., Collins, C. H., Arnold, F. H. and Weiss, R. (2005) A synthetic multicellular system for programmed pattern formation. Nature, 434, 1130–1134
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[29] |
Liu, C., Fu, X., Liu, L., Ren, X., Chau, C. K., Li, S., Xiang, L., Zeng, H., Chen, G., Tang, L.-H.,
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[30] |
Payne, S., Li, B., Cao, Y., Schaeffer, D., Ryser, M. D. and You, L. (2013) Temporal control of self-organized pattern formation without morphogen gradients in bacteria. Mol. Syst. Biol., 9, 697
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[31] |
Friedland,A. E., Lu,T. K., Wang,X., Shi,D., Church,G. and Collins,J. J. (2009) Synthetic gene networks that count. Science, 324, 1199–1202
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[32] |
Tamsir, A., Tabor, J. J. and Voigt, C. A. (2011) Robust multicellular computing using genetically encoded NOR gates and chemical ‘wires’. Nature, 469, 212–215
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[33] |
Yang, L., Nielsen, A. A., Fernandez-Rodriguez, J., McClune, C. J., Laub, M. T., Lu, T. K. and Voigt, C. A. (2014) Permanent genetic memory with>1-byte capacity. Nat. Methods, 11, 1261–1266
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[34] |
Nielsen, A. A. and Voigt, C. A. (2014) Multi-input CRISPR/Cas genetic circuits that interface host regulatory networks. Mol. Syst. Biol., 10, 763
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[35] |
Ishimatsu, K., Hata, T., Mochizuki, A., Sekine, R., Yamamura, M. and Kiga, D. (2014) General applicability of synthetic gene-overexpression for cell-type ratio control via reprogramming. ACS Synth. Biol., 3, 638–644
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[36] |
Yamaguchi, M., Ito, A., Ono, A., Kawabe, Y. and Kamihira, M. (2014) Heat-inducible gene expression system by applying alternating magnetic field to magnetic nanoparticles. ACS Synth. Biol., 3, 273–279
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[37] |
Hussain, F., Gupta, C., Hirning, A. J., Ott, W., Matthews, K. S., Josić, K. and Bennett, M. R. (2014) Engineered temperature compensation in a synthetic genetic clock. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111, 972–977
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[38] |
Levskaya, A., Chevalier, A. A., Tabor, J. J., Simpson, Z. B., Lavery, L. A., Levy, M., Davidson, E. A., Scouras, A., Ellington, A. D., Marcotte, E. M.,
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[39] |
Levskaya, A., Weiner, O. D., Lim, W. A. and Voigt, C. A. (2009) Spatiotemporal control of cell signalling using a light-switchable protein interaction. Nature, 461, 997–1001
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[40] |
Jogler, C. and Schüler, D. (2009) Genomics, genetics, and cell biology of magnetosome formation. Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 63, 501–521
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[41] |
Wang, L.-Z., Su, R.-Q., Huang, Z.-G., Wang, X., Wang, W.-X., Grebogi, C. and Lai, Y.-C. (2016) A geometrical approach to control and controllability of nonlinear dynamical networks. Nat. Commun., 7, 11323
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[42] |
Shin, Y.-J. and Bleris, L. (2010) Linear control theory for gene network modeling. PLoS One, 5, e12785
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[43] |
Del Vecchio, D., Dy, A. J. and Qian, Y. (2016) Control theory meets synthetic biology. J. R. Soc. Interface, 13, 20160380
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[44] |
Kalman, R. E. (1963) Mathematical description of linear dynamical systems. J. Soc. Ind. Appl. Math. Ser. Control, 1, 152–192
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[45] |
Lin, C.-T. (1974) Structural controllability. IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr., 19, 201–208
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[46] |
Keasling, J. D. (2010) Manufacturing molecules through metabolic engineering. Science, 330, 1355–1358
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[47] |
Koffas, M., Roberge, C., Lee, K. and Stephanopoulos, G. (1999) Metabolic engineering. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng., 1, 535–557
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[48] |
Polynikis, A., Hogan, S. and di Bernardo, M. (2009) Comparing different ODE modelling approaches for gene regulatory networks. J. Theor. Biol., 261, 511–530
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[49] |
Liu, Y.-Y., Slotine, J.-J. and Barabási, A.-L. (2011) Controllability of complex networks. Nature, 473, 167–173
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[50] |
Basler, G., Nikoloski, Z., Larhlimi, A., Barabási, A.-L. and Liu, Y.-Y. (2016) Control of fluxes in metabolic networks. Genome Res., 26, 956–968
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[51] |
Strogatz, S. H. (2014) Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: with Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Engineering. Boulder: Westview Press
|
[52] |
Faucon, P. C., Pardee, K., Kumar, R. M., Li, H., Loh, Y.-H. and Wang, X. (2014) Gene networks of fully connected triads with complete auto-activation enable multistability and stepwise stochastic transitions. PLoS One, 9, e102873
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[53] |
Kim, D. H., Grün, D. and van Oudenaarden, A. (2013) Dampening of expression oscillations by synchronous regulation of a microRNA and its target. Nat. Genet.,45, 1337–1344
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[54] |
Thorsley, D. and Klavins, E. (2012) Estimation and discrimination of stochastic biochemical circuits from time-lapse microscopy data. PLoS One, 7, e47151
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[55] |
Swain, P. S., Elowitz, M. B. and Siggia, E. D. (2002) Intrinsic and extrinsic contributions to stochasticity in gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99, 12795–12800
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[56] |
Wang, J., Xu, L. and Wang, E. (2008) Potential landscape and flux framework of nonequilibrium networks: robustness, dissipation, and coherence of biochemical oscillations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 12271–12276
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[57] |
Gillespie, D. T. (1977) Exact stochastic simulation of coupled chemical reactions. J. Phys. Chem., 81, 2340–2361
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[58] |
Balagaddé, F. K., Song, H., Ozaki, J., Collins, C. H., Barnet, M., Arnold, F. H., Quake, S. R. and You, L. (2008) A synthetic Escherichia coli predator — prey ecosystem. Mol. Syst. Biol., 4, 187
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[59] |
Song, H., Payne, S., Gray, M. and You, L. (2009) Spatiotemporal modulation of biodiversity in a synthetic chemical-mediated ecosystem. Nat. Chem. Biol., 5, 929–935
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[60] |
Song, H. and You, L. (2012) Modeling Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Bacterial Populations. In Computational Modeling of Signaling Networks. New Jersey: Humana Press
|
[61] |
Kim, K.-Y. and Wang, J. (2007) Potential energy landscape and robustness of a gene regulatory network: toggle switch. PLoS Comput. Biol., 3, e60
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[62] |
Huang, S., Eichler, G., Bar-Yam, Y. and Ingber, D. E. (2005) Cell fates as high-dimensional attractor states of a complex gene regulatory network. Phys. Rev. Lett., 94, 128701
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[63] |
Milo, R., Shen-Orr, S., Itzkovitz, S., Kashtan, N., Chklovskii, D. and Alon, U. (2002) Network motifs: simple building blocks of complex networks. Science, 298, 824–827
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[64] |
Ma, W., Trusina, A., El-Samad, H., Lim, W. A. and Tang, C. (2009) Defining network topologies that can achieve biochemical adaptation. Cell, 138, 760–773
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[65] |
Mallet, D. G. and De Pillis, L. G. (2006) A cellular automata model of tumor — immune system interactions. J. Theor. Biol., 239, 334–350
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[66] |
Huang, S., Ernberg, I. and Kauffman, S. (2009) Cancer attractors: A systems view of tumors from a gene network dynamics and developmental perspective. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol., 20, 869–876
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[67] |
Wells, D. K., Kath, W. L. and Motter, A. E. (2015) Control of stochastic and induced switching in biophysical networks. Phys. Rev. X, 5, 031036
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[68] |
Ozbudak, E. M., Thattai, M., Lim, H. N., Shraiman, B. I. and Van Oudenaarden, A. (2004) Multistability in the lactose utilization network of Escherichia coli. Nature, 427, 737–740
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[69] |
Leisner, M., Kuhr, J.-T., Rädler, J. O., Frey, E. and Maier, B. (2009) Kinetics of genetic switching into the state of bacterial competence. Biophys. J., 96, 1178–1188
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[70] |
Balaban, N. Q., Merrin, J., Chait, R., Kowalik, L. and Leibler, S. (2004) Bacterial persistence as a phenotypic switch. Science, 305, 1622–1625
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[71] |
Dhar, N. and McKinney, J. D. (2007) Microbial phenotypic heterogeneity and antibiotic tolerance. Curr. Opin. Microbiol., 10, 30–38
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[72] |
Davidson,E.H., Rast,J.P., Oliveri,P., Ransick,A., Calestani,C., Yuh,C.-H., Minokawa,T., Amore,G., Hinman,V., Arenas-Mena,C.,
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[73] |
Lipshtat, A., Loinger, A., Balaban, N. Q. and Biham, O. (2006) Genetic toggle switch without cooperative binding. Phys. Rev. Lett., 96, 188101
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[74] |
Isaacs, F. J., Hasty, J., Cantor, C. R. and Collins, J. J. (2003) Prediction and measurement of an autoregulatory genetic module. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 7714–7719
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[75] |
Singh, V. (2014) Recent advancements in synthetic biology: current status and challenges. Gene, 535, 1–11
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[76] |
Greber, D., El-Baba, M. D. and Fussenegger, M. (2008) Intronically encoded siRNAs improve dynamic range of mammalian gene regulation systems and toggle switch. Nucleic Acids Res., 36, e101
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[77] |
Smits, W. K., Eschevins, C. C., Susanna, K. A., Bron, S., Kuipers, O. P. and Hamoen, L. W. (2005) Stripping Bacillus: ComK auto-stimulation is responsible for the bistable response in competence development. Mol. Microbiol., 56, 604–614
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[78] |
Tan, C., Marguet, P. and You, L. (2009) Emergent bistability by a growth-modulating positive feedback circuit. Nat. Chem. Biol., 5, 842–848
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[79] |
Yao, G., Tan, C., West, M., Nevins, J. R. and You, L. (2011) Origin of bistability underlying mammalian cell cycle entry. Mol. Syst. Biol., 7, 485
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[80] |
Prill, R. J., Iglesias, P. A. and Levchenko, A. (2005) Dynamic properties of network motifs contribute to biological network organization. PLoS Biol., 3, e343
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[81] |
Nielsen, A. A., Der, B. S., Shin, J., Vaidyanathan, P., Paralanov, V., Strychalski, E. A., Ross, D., Densmore, D. and Voigt, C. A. (2016) Genetic circuit design automation. Science, 352, aac7341
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[82] |
Ausländer, S., Ausländer, D., Müller, M., Wieland, M. and Fussenegger, M. (2012) Programmable single-cell mammalian biocomputers. Nature, 487, 123–127
|
[83] |
Gaber, R., Lebar, T., Majerle, A., čter, B., Dobnikar, A., Benčina, M. and Jerala, R. (2014) Designable DNA-binding domains enable construction of logic circuits in mammalian cells. Nat. Chem. Biol., 10, 203–208
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[84] |
Mishra, D., Rivera, P. M., Lin, A., Del Vecchio, D. and Weiss, R. (2014) A load driver device for engineering modularity in biological networks. Nat. Biotechnol., 32, 1268–1275
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[85] |
Del Vecchio, D. (2013) A control theoretic framework for modular analysis and design of biomolecular networks. Annu. Rev. Contr., 37, 333–345
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[86] |
Harbauer, A. B., Opalińska, M., Gerbeth, C., Herman, J. S., Rao, S., Schönfisch, B., Guiard, B., Schmidt, O., Pfanner, N. and Meisinger, C.(2014) Cell cycle — dependent regulation of mitochondrial preprotein translocase. Science, 346, 1109–1113
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[87] |
Feillet, C., Krusche, P., Tamanini, F., Janssens, R. C., Downey, M. J., Martin, P., Teboul, M., Saito, S., Lévi, F. A., Bretschneider, T.,
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[88] |
Kim, J., Khetarpal, I., Sen, S. and Murray, R. M. (2014) Synthetic circuit for exact adaptation and fold-change detection. Nucleic Acids Res., 42, 6078–6089
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[89] |
Ostojic, S. (2014) Two types of asynchronous activity in networks of excitatory and inhibitory spiking neurons. Nat. Neurosci., 17, 594–600
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[90] |
Comb, M., Hyman, S. E. and Goodman, H. M. (1987) Mechanisms of trans-synaptic regulation of gene expression. Trends Neurosci., 10, 473–478
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[91] |
Tigges, M., Marquez-Lago, T. T., Stelling, J. and Fussenegger, M. (2009) A tunable synthetic mammalian oscillator. Nature, 457, 309–312
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[92] |
Xiao, M. and Cao, J. (2008) Genetic oscillation deduced from Hopf bifurcation in a genetic regulatory network with delays. Math. Biosci., 215, 55–63
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[93] |
Zakharova, A., Vadivasova, T., Anishchenko, V., Koseska, A. and Kurths, J. (2010) Stochastic bifurcations and coherencelike resonance in a self-sustained bistable noisy oscillator. Phys. Rev. E Stat. Nonlin. Soft Matter Phys., 81, 011106
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[94] |
Lewis, J. (2003) Autoinhibition with transcriptional delay: a simple mechanism for the zebrafish somitogenesis oscillator. Curr. Biol., 13, 1398–1408
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[95] |
Swinburne, I. A., Miguez, D. G., Landgraf, D. and Silver, P. A. (2008) Intron length increases oscillatory periods of gene expression in animal cells. Genes Dev., 22, 2342–2346
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[96] |
Izhikevich, E. M. (2000) Neural excitability, spiking and bursting. Int. J. Bifurcat. Chaos, 10, 1171–1266
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[97] |
Fuqua, W. C., Winans, S. C. and Greenberg, E. P. (1994) Quorum sensing in bacteria: the LuxR-LuxI family of cell density-responsive transcriptional regulators. J. Bacteriol., 176, 269–275
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[98] |
Oates, A. C., Morelli, L. G. and Ares, S. (2012) Patterning embryos with oscillations: structure, function and dynamics of the vertebrate segmentation clock. Development, 139, 625–639
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[99] |
You, L., Cox, R. S. III, Weiss, R. and Arnold, F. H. (2004) Programmed population control by cell–cell communication and regulated killing. Nature, 428, 868–871
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[100] |
Balagaddé, F. K., You, L., Hansen, C. L., Arnold, F. H. and Quake, S. R. (2005) Long-term monitoring of bacteria undergoing programmed population control in a microchemostat. Science, 309, 137–140
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[101] |
Cao, Y., Ryser, M. D., Payne, S., Li, B., Rao, C. V. and You, L. (2016) Collective space-sensing coordinates pattern scaling in engineered bacteria. Cell, 165, 620–630
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[102] |
Smith, R., Tan, C., Srimani, J. K., Pai, A., Riccione, K. A., Song, H. and You, L. (2014) Programmed Allee effect in bacteria causes a tradeoff between population spread and survival. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111, 1969–1974
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[103] |
Bintu, L., Yong, J., Antebi, Y. E., McCue, K., Kazuki, Y., Uno, N., Oshimura, M. and Elowitz, M. B. (2016) Dynamics of epigenetic regulation at the single-cell level. Science, 351, 720–724
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
[104] |
Keung, A. J., Bashor, C. J., Kiriakov, S., Collins, J. J. and Khalil, A. S. (2014) Using targeted chromatin regulators to engineer combinatorial and spatial transcriptional regulation. Cell, 158, 110–120
CrossRef
Google scholar
|
/
〈 | 〉 |