Machine learning-supported seismic stratigraphy of the Paleozoic Nubia Formation (SW Gulf of Suez-rift): Implications for paleoenvironment−petroleum geology of a lacustrine-fan delta

Abstract

Steeply dipping prograding fan deltas possess high reservoir quality facies that could be excellent targets while exploring for hydrocarbons. Due to their complex stacking nature, and limited examples, delineating their architectural elements is still challenging. In this paper we mainly performed sedimentary facies analysis; applying various disciplines e.g. sequence stratigraphy, seismic stratigraphy, GR-log motifs, and seismic waveform segmentation; so as to adequately depict the reservoir heterogeneity and quality of the Paleozoic Nubia clastics in West Esh El Mallaha Concession (southwest Gulf of Suez rift). Organic maturity prediction, to confirm the hydrocarbon charging from source units to reservoir intervals, was also of most importance in this study. Accordingly, 1D basin model was established to define the past geologic events; subsidence, and thermal maturity; and their controls on sedimentary basin evolution and associated petroleum potential. We utilized several key-information scales; e.g. wireline logs, and seismic profiles. Linking different disciplines applied in this study points to a successful integrated reservoir characterization workflow capable of unfolding ancient environments and the associated hydrocarbon potential. The results show that Nubia Formation was built during the lowstand−transgressive phase of a 3rd order depositional sequence. It encompasses fluvio-lacustrine system with eight sedimentary facies associations; form source to sink. Fluvial channels and mouth bars, settled in subaerial and subaqueous settings respectively, represent the most significant reservoir facies in the area. Given best hydrocarbon-reservoir quality, the deltaic mouth bars ought to attract attention of further oilfield development plans and be considered while investigating similar settings.

Keywords

Seismic stratigraphy / Nubia formation / Paleoenvironment / Petroleum geology / West Esh El Mallaha concession / Gulf of Suez

Acknowledgements

The authors would very much like to express their thanks to EGPC (Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation) and GANOPE (South Valley Egyptian Petroleum Holding Co.) for providing the needed data and granting permissions for publication. Authors also very much thank Geology Department of Al-Azhar University for permitting access to labs equipped with required facility and software. Many thanks would certainly go to respectful journal editor, Dr. Guangchuan Liang, and reviewers for helping refine the manuscript.

References

[1] M.A. Abdelwahhab, A.A. Radwan, H. Mahmoud, A. Mansour, Geophysical 3Dstatic reservoir and basin modeling of a Jurassic estuarine system (JG-Oilfield, Abu Gharadig basin, Egypt), J. Asian Earth Sci. 225 (2022) 105067, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2021.105067.

[2] A.A. Radwan, M.A. Abdelwahhab, B.S. Nabawy, K.H. Mahfouz, M.S. Ahmed, Facies analysis-constrained geophysical 3D-static reservoir modeling of Cenomanian units in the Aghar Oilfield (Western Desert, Egypt): Insights into paleoenvironment and petroleum geology of fluviomarine systems, Mar. Pet. Geol. 136 (2022) 105436, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105436.

[3] M.A. Abdelwahhab, N.A. Abdelhafez, A.M. Embabi, Facies analysis-constrained 3D-static reservoir and basin modeling of a Paleozoic fan-deltaic system (Gulf of Suez): Documenting lacustrine plays in Egypt, Nat. Resour. Res., Submitted for publication.

[4] P. Ringrose, K. Nordahl, R. Wen, Vertical permeability estimation in heterolithic tidal deltaic sandstones, Petrol. Geosci. (2005), https://doi.org/10.1144/1354-079303-614.

[5] K. Nordahl, P.S. Ringrose, Identifying the representative elementary volume for permeability in heterolithic deposits using numerical rock models, Math. Geosci. (2008), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-008-9182-4.

[6] A.A. Kassem, W.S. Hussein, A.E. Radwan, N. Anani, M. Abioui, S. Jain, A.A. Shehata, Petrographic and diagenetic study of siliciclastic jurassic sediments from the Northeastern margin of Africa: implication for reservoir quality, J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 200 (2021) 108340.

[7] A.E. Radwan, F. Trippetta, A.A. Kassem, M. Kania, Multi-scale characterization of unconventional tight carbonate reservoir: insights from October oil filed, Gulf of Suez rift basin, Egypt, J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 197 (2021) 107968.

[8] A.A. Shehata, A.A. Kassem, H.L. Brooks, V. Zuchuat, A.E. Radwan, Facies analysis and sequence-stratigraphic control on reservoir architecture: example from mixed carbonate/siliciclastic sediments of Raha Formation, Gulf of Suez, Egypt, Mar. Petrol. Geol. 131 (2021) 105160.

[9] M.E. Tucker, Sedimentary Petrology. An Introduction to the Orgin of Sedimentary Rocks, 2001.

[10] S. Boggs Jr., Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, fifth ed., Pearson Education Limited, 2014 https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(95)00151-4.

[11] D.B. Prior, B.D. Bornhold, The underwater development of Holocene fan deltas, in: A. Colella, D.B. Prior (Coarse-Grained Deltas, International Assoc. Sedimentologists Spec. Pub. Eds.), 10, Blackwell Scientific Pub, 1990, pp. 75-90, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303858.ch4.

[12] W. Nemec, R.J. Steel, Fan Deltas: Sedimentology and Tectonic Settings, Blackie., Glasgow and London, 1988.

[13] S.K. Chough, G.J. Orton, Fan deltas: depositional styles and controls, Sediment. Geol. 98 (1995).

[14] A.S. Afifi, A.R. Moustafa, H.M. Helmy, Fault block rotation and footwall erosion in the southern Suez rift: implications for hydrocarbon exploration, Mar. Petrol. Geol. 76 (2016) 377-396, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.05.029.

[15] I. Attia, I. Helal, A. El Dakhakhny, S.A. Aly, Using sequence stratigraphic approaches in a highly tectonic area: case study -Nubia (A) sandstone in southwestern Gulf of Suez, Egypt, J. Afr. Earth Sci. 136 (2017) 10-21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.06.001.

[16] B.S. Nabawy, M.S. El Sharawy, Reservoir assessment and quality discrimination of Kareem Formation using integrated petrophysical data, Southern Gulf of Suez, Egypt, Mar. Petrol. Geol. 93 (2018) 230-246, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.03.007.

[17] A.E. Radwan, S. Rohais, D. Chiarella, Combined stratigraphic-structural play characterization in hydrocarbon exploration: a case study of Middle Miocene sandstones, Gulf of Suez basin, Egypt, J. Asian Earth Sci. (2021) 104686.

[18] M.R. Hempton, Constraints on Arabian plate motion and extensional history of the Red Sea, Tectonics 6 (1987) 687-705.

[19] R.G. Coleman, Geological Evolution of the Red Sea, Oxford Monogr. Geol. Geophys. Oxford Univ. Press., New York, 1993, p. 186.

[20] J.R. Cochran, A model for development of Red Sea, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 67 (1983) 41-69.

[21] A.W. Bally, Musings over sedimentary basin evolution, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London. Ser. A, Math. Phys. Sci. 305 (1982) 325-338.

[22] W. Bosworth, Geometry of propagating continental rifts, Nature 316 (1985) 625-627.

[23] W. Bosworth, A high-strain rift model for the southern Gulf of Suez (Egypt),in: J. J. Lambiase (Ed.), Hydrocarb. Habitat Rift Basins, Geological Society Special Publication, 1995, pp. 75-102, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.080.01.04.

[24] J. Peijs, T.G. Bevan, J.T. Piombino, The Gulf of Suez rift basin, in: Reg. Geol. Tectonics Phaneroz. Rift Syst. Sediment. Basins, Elsevier, 2012, pp. 164-194.

[25] R. Pomeyrol, Nubian sandstone, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 52 (1968) 589-600.

[26] A.N. El-Barkooky, Stratigraphic framework of the paleozoic in the Gulf of suez region, Egypt, in: First Int. Conf. Geol. Arab World (GAW1), Cairo Univ., Cairo, Egypt, 1992.

[27] A.S. Alsharhan, M.G. Salah, Lithostratigraphy, sedimentology and hydrocarbon habitat of the pre-cenomanian nubian sandstone in the Gulf of suez oil province, Egypt, GeoArabia 2 (1997) 385-400.

[28] S.A. Aly, H.F. Ewida, A. Shebl, I.A. Nasr, Well log analysis and oil potentialities of the lower cretaceous Nubia sandstones, West Esh El Mallaha oilfield, southern Gulf of suez, Egypt, Egypt, J. Pure Appl. Sci. (Ankara) 53 (2015) 1-11.

[29] M.A. Sarhan, A.M.K. Basal, Evaluation of Nubia sandstone reservoir as inferred from well logging data interpretation for Rabeh East-25 well, Southwest Gulf of suez, Egypt, J. Afr. Earth Sci. 155 (2019) 124-136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.04.012.

[30] W.S. El Diasty, S.Y. El Beialy, A. Khairy, R.M. El Attar, K.J. Edwards, Paleoenvironmental and source rock potential of the TuronianeMiocene sequence in the West Esh El Mellaha (SW margin of the Suez rift, Egypt): insights from palynofacies, palynology and organic geochemistry, Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 276 (2020) 104190, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2020.104190.

[31] W.S. El Diasty, S.Y. El Beialy, R.M. El Attar, A. Khairy, K.E. Peters, D.J. Batten, Oil-source correlation in the West Esh El Mellaha, southwestern margin of the Gulf of suez rift, Egypt, J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 180 (2019) 844-860, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.05.083.

[32] A.M. Elatrash, M.A. Abdelwahhab, H.A. Wanas, S.I. El-Naggar, H.M. Elshayeb, Well log-aided source rock potential, basin modeling, and seismic attributes: petroleum geology case study of Pliocene discovery at South Mansoura Area (Nile Delta), Arabian J. Geosci. 14 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-07285-y.

[33] M.A. Abdelwahhab, A. Raef, Integrated reservoir and basin modeling in understanding the petroleum system and evaluating prospects: the cenomanian reservoir, Bahariya formation, at Falak field, Shushan basin, western desert, Egypt, J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 189 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2020.107023.

[34] E.A. Abd El-Gawad, M.A. Abdelwahhab, M.H. Bekiet, A.Z. Noah, N.A. ElSayed, A.E.E. Fouda, Static reservoir modeling of El Wastani formation, for justifying development plans, using 2D seismic and well log data in Scarab field, offshore Nile Delta, Egypt, J. Afr. Earth Sci. 158 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103546.

[35] A.A. Radwan, B.S. Nabawy, M. Shihata, M. Leila, Seismic interpretation, reservoir characterization, gas origin and entrapment of the Miocene-Pliocene Mangaa C sandstone, Karewa Gas Field, North Taranaki Basin, New Zealand, Mar. Pet. Geol. 135 (2022) 105420, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105420.

[36] A. Poupon, C. Clavier, J. Dumanoir, R. Gaymard, A. Misk, Log analysis of sandshale sequences-A Systematic approach, J. Petrol. Technol. 22 (1970) 867-881, https://doi.org/10.2118/2897-PA.

[37] D. Atlas, Log Interpretation Charts, Dresser Industries, Inc., 1979.

[38] G. Asquith, C. Gibson, Basic Well Log Analysis for Geologists, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1982.

[39] J.T. Dewan, Essentials of Modern Open-Hole Log Interpretation, PennWell Publications, 1983.

[40] P.F. Worthington, The evolution of Shaly-sand concepts in reservoir evaluation, Log. Anal. 26 (1985) 23-40.

[41] G. Asquith, D. Krygowski, Basic Well Log Analysis, second ed., The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 2004.

[42] T. Darling, Well Logging and Formation Evaluation, Gulf Professional Publishing, 2005.

[43] A. Bhatt, H.B. Helle, Determination of facies from well logs using modular neural networks, Petrol. Geosci. (2002), https://doi.org/10.1144/petgeo.8.3.217.

[44] A.M. Elatrash, M.A. Abdelwahhab, H.A. Wanas, S.I. El-Naggar, H.M. Elshayeb, Multi-disciplinary approach to sedimentary facies analysis of Messinian Salinity Crisis tectono-sequences (South-Mansoura Area, Nile Delta): incisedvalley fill geological model reconstruction and petroleum geologyereservoir element delineation, J. Pet. Explor. Prod. Technol. 11 (2021) 1643-1666, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01124-2.

[45] R.M. Mitchum Jr., P. R. Vail, Seismic stratigraphic interpretation procedure, in: AAPG Mem. Seism. Stratigr. -Appl. to Hydrocarb. Explor, 1977, pp. 135-143, 26.

[46] R.M. Mitchum Jr., P. R. Vail, J.B. Sangree, Stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in depositional sequences, in: AAPG Mem. Seism. Stratigr. -Appl. to Hydrocarb. Explor, 1977, pp. 117-133, 26.

[47] A. Iske, T. Randen, Mathematical Methods and Modelling in Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2005.

[48] M.H. Rider, Gamma-ray log shape used as a facies indicator: critical analysis of an oversimplified methodology, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. (1990), https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1990.048.01.04.

[49] D. Cant, Subsurface facies analysis, in: R. G. Walker, J. N (Facies Model.Eds.), Response to Sea Lev. Chang., Geol Assoc Canada, 1992, pp. 27-45.

[50] J.J. Chow, M.C. Li, S.C. Fuh, Geophysical well log study on the paleoenvironment of the hydrocarbon producing zones in the Erchungchi Formation, Hsinyin, SW Taiwan, Terr. Atmos. Ocean Sci. (2005), https://doi.org/10.3319/TAO.2005.16.3.531(T).

[51] A.E. Radwan, Modeling the depositional environment of the sandstone reservoir in the middle Miocene Sidri member, Badri field, Gulf of suez basin, Egypt: integration of gamma-ray log patterns and petrographic characteristics of lithology, Nat. Resour. Res. 30 (2021) 431-449.

[52] K.-Y. Huang, W.R.I. Chang, H.T. Yen, Self-organizing neural network for picking seismic horizons, in: SEG Tech. Progr. Expand. Abstr. 1990, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1990, pp. 313-316.

[53] A. Gersho, R.M. Gray, Vector Quantization and Signal Compression, Springer, Boston, MA, 1992, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-3626-0.

[54] T. Coléou, M. Poupon, K. Azbel, Unsupervised seismic facies classification: a review and comparison of techniques and implementation, Lead. Edge 22 (2003) 942-953.

[55] M.M. Saggaf, M.N. Toksöz, M.I. Marhoon, Seismic facies classification and identification by competitive neural networks, Geophysics 68 (2003) 1984-1999.

[56] V. Kostina, Data compression with low distortion and finite blocklength, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theor. 63 (2017) 4268-4285.

[57] A.E. Raef, M.W. Totten, A. Linares, A. Kamari, Lithofacies control on reservoir quality of the Viola limestone in southwest Kansas and unsupervised machine learning approach of seismic attributes facies-classification, Pure Appl. Geophys. 176 (2019) 4297-4308, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02205-4.

[58] R.C. Selley, Concepts and Methods of Subsurface Facies Analysis, 1978, pp. 9-82, https://doi.org/10.1306/ce9397.

[59] D. Emery, K.J. Myers, Sequence Stratigraphy, Blackwell Science Ltd, 1996.

[60] A. Nazeer, S.A. Abbasi, S.H. Solangi, Sedimentary facies interpretation of gamma ray (GR) log as basic well logs in central and lower indus basin of Pakistan, Geod. Geodyn. 7 (2016) 432-443, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geog.2016.06.006.

[61] R. Littke, R.F. Sachsenhofer, T. Hantschel, B. Wygrala, Absenkungsgeschichte und Kohlenwasserstoffbildung im Oberkarbon des westlichen Emslandes-Eine Simulationsstudie, DGMK Forschumgsberichte Proj. 459-2, 1993, p. 114. Hambg.

[62] H.S. Poelchau, D.R. Baker, T. Hantscgel, B. Horsfield, B. Wygrala, Basin Simulation and the design of the conceptual basin model, in: D. H. Welte, B. Horsfield, D.R. Baker (Pet Basin Evol.,Eds.), Springer, Berlin, 1997.

[63] M.N. Yalcin, R. Littke, R.F. Sachsenhofer, Thermal history of sedimentary basins, in: D. H. Welte, B. Horsfield, D. Baker (Pet Basin Eval.,Eds.), Springer, Berlin, 1997, pp. 73-167.

[64] C. Buker, R. Littke, D.H. Welte, 2D-modelling of thermal evolution of Carboniferous and Devonian sedimentary rocks of the eastern Ruhr Basin and northern Rheinish Massif, Germany, Zeitschrift Der Dtsch. Geol. Gesellschaft. 146 (1999) 321-339.

[65] T. Hantschel, A.I. Kauerauf, Fundamentals of Basin and Petroleum Systems Modeling, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2009.

[66] H. Dembicki Jr., basin modeling,in: H. Dembicki Jr. (Ed. ), Pract. Pet Geochemistry Explor. Prod., Elsevier Inc., 2017, pp. 273-308.

[67] A.K. Burnham, J.J. Sweeney, A chemical kinetic model of vitrinite maturation and reflectance, Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 53 (1989) 2649-2657, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(89)90136-1.

[68] O.R. Passey, F.U. Moretti, J.D. Stroud, A practical model for organic richness from porosity and resistivity logs, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 74 (1990) 1777-1794.

[69] J.J. Sweeney, A.K. Burnham, Evaluation of a simple model of vitrinite reflectance based on chemical kinetics, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 74 (1990) 1559-1570.

[70] M.A. Abdelwahhab, E.H. Ali, N.A. Abdelhafez, Petroleum system analysisconjoined 3D-static reservoir modeling in a 3-way and 4-way dip closure setting: insights into petroleum geology of fluvio-marine deposits at BED-2 Field (Western Desert, Egypt), Petroleum 9 (1) (2023) 8-32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petlm.2021.06.001.

[71] H. Zeng, M.M. Backus, K.T. Barrow, N. Tyler, Stratal slicing, Part I: realistic 3-D seismic model, Geophysics (1998), https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1444351.

[72] H. Zeng, T.F. Hentz, High-frequency sequence stratigraphy from seismic sedimentology: applied to Miocene, Vermilion block 50, tiger shoal area, offshore Louisiana, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. (2004), https://doi.org/10.1306/10060303018.

[73] S.S. Selim, A.A. Abdel Baset, Sedimentological analysis and reservoir characterization of an estuarine bar: an example from the El-Basant Gas field, Nile Delta, Egypt, J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 84 (2020) 103548, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2020.103548.

[74] H. Fenies, J.-P. Tastet, Facies and architecture of an estuarine tidal bar (the Trompeloup bar, Gironde Estuary, SW France), Mar. Geol. 150 (1998) 149-169, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00059-0.

[75] P.A. Allen, N. Hovius, Sediment supply from landslide-dominated catchments: implications for basin-margin fans, Basin Res. (1998), https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2117.1998.00060.x.

[76] P. Allen, Striking a chord, Nature (2005), https://doi.org/10.1038/434961a.

[77] P.A. Allen, From landscapes into geological history, Nature (2008), https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06586.

[78] P.A. Allen, Time scales of tectonic landscapes and their sediment routing systems, in: K. Gallagher, S.J. Jones, J. Wainwright (Landsc Evol.Eds.), Denudation, Clim. Tectonics over Differ. Time Sp. Scales, vol. 296, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 2008, pp. 7-28, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP296.2.

[79] A.L. Densmore, P.A. Allen, G. Simpson, Development and response of a coupled catchment fan system under changing tectonic and climatic forcing, J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. (2007), https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000474.

[80] T.O. Sømme, W. Helland-hansen, O.J. Martinsen, J.B. Thurmond, Relationships between morphological and sedimentological parameters in source-to-sink systems: a basis for predicting semi-quantitative characteristics in subsurface systems, Basin Res. (2009), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2009.00397.x.

[81] T.O. Sømme, C.A.L. Jackson, Source-to-sink analysis of ancient sedimentary systems using a subsurface case study from the Møre-Trøndelag area of southern Norway: Part 2 -sediment dispersal and forcing mechanisms, Basin Res. (2013), https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12014.

[82] T.O. Sømme, C.A.L. Jackson, M. Vaksdal, Source-to-sink analysis of ancient sedimentary systems using a subsurface case study from the Møre-Trøndelag area of southern Norway: Part 1 -depositional setting and fan evolution, Basin Res. (2013), https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12013.

[83] S.P. Prizomwala, N. Bhatt, N. Basavaiah, Provenance discrimination and Source-to-Sink studies from a dryland fluvial regime: an example from Kachchh, western India, Int. J. Sediment Res. (2014), https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-6279(14)60025-1.

[84] R. Martin, Paleogeomorphology and its application to exploration for oil and gas (with examples from western Canada), Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. (1966).

[85] M. Richards, M. Bowman, H. Reading, Submarine-fan systems I: characterization and stratigraphic prediction, Mar. Petrol. Geol. (1998), https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8172(98)00036-1.

[86] H.W. Posamentier, Seismic geomorphology: imaging elements of depositional systems from shelf to deep basin using 3D seismic data: implications fro exploration and development, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. (2004).

[87] H.W. Posamentier, R.J. Davies, J.A. Cartwright, L.J. Wood, Seismic geomorphology e an overview, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. (2007), https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2007.277.01.01.

[88] M. Seidel, E. Seidel, B. Stöckhert, Tectono-sedimentary evolution of lower to middle Miocene half-graben basins related to an extensional detachment fault (western Crete, Greece), Terra. Nova (2007), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.2006.00707.x.

[89] A. Masrouhi, M. Ghanmi, M.M. Ben Slama, M. Ben Youssef, J.M. Vila, F. Zargouni, New tectono-sedimentary evidence constraining the timing of the positive tectonic inversion and the Eocene Atlasic phase in northern Tunisia: implication for the North African paleo-margin evolution, Compt. Rendus Geosci. (2008), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2008.07.007.

[90] E. Masini, G. Manatschal, G. Mohn, J.F. Ghienne, F. Lafont, The tectonosedimentary evolution of a supra-detachment rift basin at a deep-water magma-poor rifted margin: the example of the Samedan Basin preserved in the Err nappe in SE Switzerland, Basin Res. (2011), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00509.x.

[91] T. Dumont, S. Schwartz, S. Guillot, T. Simon-Labric, P. Tricart, S. Jourdan, Structural and sedimentary records of the Oligocene revolution in the Western Alpine arc, J. Geodyn. (2012), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.006.

[92] H. Zhu, X. Yang, X. Zhou, K. Liu, Three-dimensional facies architecture analysis using sequence stratigraphy and seismic sedimentology: example from the Paleogene Dongying formation in the BZ3-1 block of the Bozhong Sag, Bohai Bay basin, China, Mar. Petrol. Geol. (2014), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.11.014.

[93] Q. Liu, X. Zhu, Y. Yang, M. Geng, M. Tan, L. Jiang, L. Chen, Sequence stratigraphy and seismic geomorphology application of facies architecture and sediment-dispersal patterns analysis in the third member of Eocene Shahejie Formation, slope system of Zhanhua Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, China, Mar. Petrol. Geol. 78 (2016) 766-784, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015.11.015.

[94] A.D. Miall, A review of the braided-river depositional environment, Earth Sci. Rev. (1977), https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(77)90055-1.

[95] A.D. Miall, The Geology of Fluvial Deposits: Sedimentary Facies, Basin Analysis, and Petroleum Geology, 1996, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0037-0738(96)00081-4.

[96] J.S. Bridge, Fluvial facies models: recent developments, in: Facies Model, Revisit., 2011, https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.06.84.0085.