1 Introduction
The topic of mental health and well-being have received increasing attention in the context of global urbanization
[1–
2]. Specifically, the concept encompasses a range of psychological conditions, including both clinical assessments and self-reported evaluations of life quality and emotional states
[3]. Childhood (ages 0 ~ 18) is a critical stage in one's mental health development, where positive experiences can yield long-lasting benefits
[4–
5]. Previous research has shown that increased exposure to public open spaces significantly contributes to improved mental health and well-being among children, where natural environments plays a key role in this process
[6–
10]. However, most studies have focused on green spaces
[7,
11–
13], while the influence of blue spaces for children's mental health remains underexplored.
Broadly defined, blue spaces refer to natural or man-made water-dominated environments, including oceans, rivers, lakes, wetlands, ponds, outdoor swimming pools, and decorative water features such as fountains
[14–
15]. Research on the potential psychological benefits of blue spaces dates back to the late 20th century, when Attention Restoration Theory proposed that such environments could provide psychological or physical "escape" from cognitively demanding settings, thereby restoring attention capacity
[16]. Subsequent empirical studies have demonstrated that blue spaces can also promote psycho-social well-being
[17–
20]. Even when not intentionally designed for play, children are able to identify and engage with the diverse activity opportunities offered by blue spaces, which may trigger intrinsic motivation and enhance their mental health and well-being
[15,
21].
Children tend to perceive their surroundings as a set of activity opportunities
[22]. However, the supporting extent to health-promoting behaviors depends on the interaction between environmental features, socio-cultural context, and individual choices
[23–
24]. In reality, children's physical engagement with blue spaces is often restricted by external factors such as safety regulations, which may limit their ability to gain mental health benefits. The concept of "affordance, " proposed by James Jerome Gibson, describes the action possibilities provided by the environment
[23]. Affordances can be understood as a hierarchy—potential, perceived, utilized, and shaped—based on the degree of interaction between individuals and their surroundings
[25] (Fig. 1). This framework offers a useful lens to understand the mechanisms of health-related outcomes. This study adopted this four-level framework to describe children's interaction with water, defined as: 1) potential affordance, referring to the mere presence of water that has not yet been noticed by the child; 2) perceived affordance, where water features are recognized and acknowledged; 3) utilized affordance, involving direct engagement or use of water bodies; and 4) shaped affordance, where children modify water environments (e.g., building sand structures), potentially generating new opportunities for interaction.
Building on the blue space affordance framework, this scoping review aims to: 1) examine existing literature by analyzing the alignment of research designs across different affordance levels; 2) explore whether and how children's interaction with blue spaces during childhood enhance their mental health and well-being; and 3) analyze how affordance actualization and intensity influence the realization of mental health benefits. The study seeks to reveal the promoting mechanisms through which blue spaces support children's mental health and well-being, broaden the research lens on the role of urban green and blue spaces to residents' mental health, and provide a theoretical and evaluation foundation for future planning and design practices.
2 Methods
2.1 Literature Search
This scoping review was conducted throughout 6 databases: Web of Science (WoS), Scopus, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Garden, Landscape & Horticulture Index (GLHI), and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). The search targeted peer-reviewed journal articles with keywords related to "children, " "blue space, " and "mental health" (Table 1). WoS used topic-based search; Scopus used the TITLE–ABS–KEY–AUTH field; PsycINFO, MEDLINE, and GLHI used full-text fields; and CNKI used subject headings. The search was completed on February 9, 2023, yielding a total of 72,845 records.
2.2 Literature Screening
Three criteria were applied to screen eligible studies.
1) Participants should be aged 0 to 18 years. If participants' age was not explicitly reported, they were required to be identified as kindergarten, primary, secondary, or high school students. If adults were involved, the average age of the participants had to be below 13 years old, or at least 80% of the participants younger than 15
①[8,
26–
28]. Studies involving adults recalling their childhood experiences with blue spaces in relation to mental health outcomes were also included.
① This study adopted a literature screening strategy commonly used in scoping reviews on the health benefits of green spaces for children (e.g., Refs. [
8,
26-
28]). Although some of such studies involved adult participants, the majority of participants remained aged 0 to 18. This criterion ensured the relevance of selected studies and effectively excluded those targeting exclusively adult populations.
2) Participants had to engage in certain interaction forms with water features in blue spaces, including in-water, on-water, nearby, or perceptual use of water.
3) Studies had to assess mental health and well-being using either quantitative measures or qualitative descriptions.
The screening followed the guideline by the
PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation[29], and the process is illustrated in Fig. 2. All retrieved records were imported into EndNote for duplicate removal. The de-duplicated references were then uploaded into Rayyan
② for independent screening on the titles and abstracts by two reviewers (who are the authors to this paper). An additional 15 studies were identified using snowballing. After full-text assessment, finally 21 articles were selected for this study
[30–
50].
② Rayyan is a free online platform developed by the Qatar Computing Research Institute (QCRI) to support systematic review workflows. It facilitates efficient literature screening and collaboration among researchers.
2.3 Extraction of Key Information of the Literature
Key information from the 21 included studies were extracted and summarized (Table 2), including study design, age of participants, characteristics of blue space exposure, and mental health and well-being outcomes.
3 Results
3.1 Categories of the Associations Between Blue Space Indicators or Interventions and Levels of Affordance
Among the 21 studies, 19 were published after 2018, while the other two published between 2013 and 2018. Geographically, the studies were predominantly conducted in Europe (N = 10), Oceania (N = 5), North America (N = 3), and Africa (N = 2); and one study included data from 18 countries or regions. To date, no study has been conducted in China.
In terms of methodological approaches, psychological health was assessed using standardized psychometric scales in 15 studies. Other methods included semi-structured or focus group interviews (N = 4), national mental health records (N = 1), self-reports (N = 1), and physiological measurements (N = 1). Among these studies, mental health and well-being were conceptualized across 10 dimensions (Table 3).
Based on the associations between blue space indicators or interventions and the levels of affordance, the included studies can be categorized into three groups, among which the degree of affordance actualization and intensity increases.
1) Potential affordance (PA): These studies assessed the availability of blue spaces, highlighting the possibility for affordance actualization and its relations to mental health. Key indicators included the presence and coverage of blue spaces near the residence or school, as well as proximity to the nearest blue space, in the participants' childhood.
2) Affordance actualization (AA): These studies focused on the affordances already actualized through children's interactions with blue spaces, capturing short-term mental health outcomes. Interventions such as surfing programs, dinghy sailing, and nautical activities served as indicators/interventions of actualized affordances. Partly, additional qualitative data were gathered through interviews with children or adult caregivers.
3) Intensity of actualized affordance (IA): These studies examined the frequency and determinants of affordance realization and their associations with mental health and well-being.
There were notable differences in the number of studies, sample sizes, and study designs across the three groups.
1) PA studies (
N = 9) involved the largest samples (851 ~ 908, 533) and spanned the full age range of childhood. Cohort studies examined the long-term effects of proximity to blue spaces on children's mental health outcomes
[30–
31,
36,
38], while cross-sectional studies explored current associations
[32–
35,
37]. However, the lack of detailed residential histories limited the precision of exposure duration estimates and the ability to distinguish short- and long-term impacts.
2) AA studies (
N = 9) had the smallest sample sizes (9 ~ 190), focusing mainly on adolescents aged 13 to 17. Four descriptive studies assessed perceived benefits from aquatic programs
[40,
43,
45–
46], while five experimental studies included pre–post designs
[39,
41–
42,
44] or control groups
[47]. Due to the lack of follow-up in these studies, it is not possible to determine the durability of the mental health benefits. Although intervention volume was described—intervention length ranged from 6 weeks to 4 years, frequency was typically once or twice per week, and session duration ranged from 0.75 to 3 hours—these factors were not analyzed as independent variables among the included AA studies, suggesting limited attention to the dose–response relationship between aquatic activity and mental health.
3) IA studies (
N = 3) had moderate sample sizes (115 ~ 15, 743) and covered ages 0 to 16. For example, Elmira Amoly et al. used the number of days a child visited blue spaces within a year as a proxy for intensity
[50]. Phoebe George et al. examined visit frequency, accessibility, and parental permission to assess overall exposure to blue spaces
[49]. Valeria Vitale et al. further analyzed the depth and quality of children's engagement in different types of blue spaces through parental interviews
[48].
3.2 Effects of Blue Space Affordances on Different Dimensions of Mental Health and Well-Being
Figure 3 illustrates the associations between blue space affordances and ten dimensions of mental health and well-being. Overall, stronger evidence was found for overall mental health, resilience, social functioning, self-confidence and self-efficacy, and emotional and behavioral functioning, while the remaining five categories received relatively limited empirical support.
3.2.1 Quality of Life and Well-Being
Three studies examined quality of life, with mixed findings. Regarding PA, two Canadian studies explored the effect of water body coverage. Quynh Huynh et al. investigated the percentage of water area within a 5 km radius around the school and found no significant association with current life satisfaction
[32]. In contrast, Suzanne Tillmann et al. found a significant positive association between water area coverage within 500 m of the residence and multidimensional quality of life, including physical, psychological, social, and academic domains
[34]. Regarding AA, the study by Ana I. Pereira et al. reported that caregivers perceived surfing therapy as beneficial for children's quality of life across multiple dimensions—physical health, mental health, self-perception, family relationships, financial resources, peer support, school environment, and social acceptance. However, the children themselves did not report significant improvements
[47].
Six studies investigated subjective well-being, also yielding inconsistent results. Two studies focused on PA but found no significant associations between subjective well-being and either the proportion of nearby water area or the distance to blue spaces
[32–
33]. However, four studies examining AA or IA found significant improvements in children's subjective well-being following participation in surfing programs
[42], dinghy sailing
[43], and nautical activities
[40], as well as through caregiver permission to access blue spaces and children's perceived accessibility
[48].
3.2.2 Overall Mental Health
Five out of seven studies confirmed significant positive effects of childhood exposure to blue spaces on overall mental health. Regarding PA, walking distance from the residence to a blue space was significantly associated with children's current mental health status
[37]. A large cohort study found that while children raised near blue spaces did not report better overall mental health, they exhibited a lower incidence of mental disorders
[30–
31]. In terms of AA, participation in boating activities was found to significantly enhance children's overall mental health
[43]. Although children themselves perceived fewer mental health benefits from surfing programs than their caregivers did
[47], both children and their guardians reported notable improvements when the children had Down syndrome, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
[44]. However, the frequency of beach visits, an IA indicator, was not significantly associated with overall mental health outcomes
[50].
3.2.3 Individual Expectation
Only one study investigated the effect of AA on children's individual expectation. Although a slight improvement was observed following participation in surfing activities, the effect did not reach statistical significance
[39].
3.2.4 Self-confidence and Self-efficacy
Five out of six studies confirmed a significant positive effect of AA on children's self-confidence and self-efficacy. Caregivers often regarded beaches as safe environments where children could build confidence through engaging in adventurous activities
[49]. Boating and surfing programs were found to potentially contribute to the development of these traits, though insufficient confidence was reported as a common challenge during the early stages of such participation
[41,
43,
45]. However, one study conducted by Bruno Silva et al. reported only limited improvements in self-confidence as a result of participating surfing programs
[39].
3.2.5 Self-awareness and Self-esteem
All three studies examining this dimension demonstrated that AA significantly enhanced children's self-awareness and self-esteem. Regarding self-awareness, caregivers in coastal communities generally emphasized that beaches offered valuable opportunities for young children to develop self-understanding through daily experiences, environmental awareness, and cultural identity formation
[49]. While one study found no significant effects of surfing on self-esteem, others identified potential benefits of both sailing activities and surfing programs. For instance, school-based maritime programs—including surfing, rowing, and sailing—were found to promote self-esteem by helping children overcome fear and challenges, thereby achieving self-transcendence
[40]. Additionally, significant improvements in self-esteem were observed following an eight-week surfing intervention
[41].
3.2.6 Resilience
Three studies confirmed a positive relationship between AA and children's resilience. These studies particularly emphasized that beaches served as safe, exploratory spaces that supported moderate risk-taking, emotional regulation, and risk management when children faced challenges
[41,
43,
49].
3.2.7 Emotional and Behavioral Functioning
Blue spaces were more consistently associated with emotional regulation than with behavioral control. Two studies found no significant associations between blue space exposure and improvements in behavioral regulation among children
[37,
50]. In contrast, nine out of ten studies supported a positive relationship between blue spaces and emotional regulation, spanning all three categories of affordance actualization and intensity. Specifically, children who lived near blue spaces
[34], received parental permission to access them, or visited beaches more frequently
[49] exhibited better emotional regulation. Moreover, individuals who had lived near blue spaces throughout childhood reported higher emotional well-being in adulthood
[31]. Aquatic activities were found to enhance children's and adolescents' positive affect
[42], emotional regulation
[40–
41,
43,
45,
47], emotional stability
[46], and overall emotional well-being
[41] in the short term. However, one study did not find statistically significant improvements in emotional regulation following surfing interventions
[47].
The effects of blue spaces on alleviating anxiety and depression in children remained inconclusive. Among six studies, only two reported significant positive effects, while three found no significant associations with accessibility
[33], frequency of visit
[50], or coastal residence
[38]. Notably, one study suggested that children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds experienced stronger benefits from blue space exposure
[37]. Additionally, results varied across studies using different psychological assessment scales
[41,
47].
3.2.8 Social Functioning
Two studies focusing on PA yielded mixed results regarding children's social functioning. While proximity to blue spaces was significantly associated with better social skills
[34], distance to the nearest blue space was not
[37]. In contrast, ten of eleven studies reported significant positive associations between AA—and the corresponding IA—and children's social competence. Aquatic activities were shown to provide abundant opportunities for social engagement. Through shared play, team-based tasks, challenging experiences, and environmental involvement, these activities enhanced prosocial behaviors, peer relationships, and social skills, while also promoting teamwork, confidence in social interactions, and a sense of social responsibility
[49–
50]. Surfing, in particular, helped improve social adaptability
[46–
47] and socialization
[39] by facilitating interactions with peers and instructors. It also helped build stable social support networks
[42] and fostered belonging and social connectedness
[40], especially among adolescents with social challenges such as ASD
[44–
45]. Boating activities were found to strengthen communication, leadership, and collaboration skills
[43], while school-based sailing programs encouraged children's engagement in civic and environmental initiatives
[40].
3.2.9 Attention
All three studies found no significant associations between blue spaces and children's attention. Neither the presence of blue spaces near the residences nor the frequency of beach visits was linked to improved attention levels
[37,
50]. Surfing also failed to show statistically significant effects
[47].
3.2.10 Intelligence and Cognitive Development
Among four studies, three reported that blue space exposure positively influenced children's intelligence and cognitive development. These studies focused on AA, suggesting that aquatic activities supported executive function and cognitive flexibility by requiring rapid decision-making and environmental adaptation
[43,
46]. However, two other studies found no significant effects of the presence of water bodies in everyday settings—such as near the residences or schools—on cognitive development
[30,
36].
In summarizing the associations between blue space exposure and the ten dimensions of mental health and well-being across different categories of affordance actualization and intensity, notable differences in strength emerged:
1) PA were weakly associated with mental health and well-being. The most consistent finding was their significant link to overall mental health
[30,
37], while associations with specific dimensions remained limited. Some evidence supported positive relationships with quality of life and well-being
[34], social functioning
[34], and emotional and behavioral functioning
[34,
37], but more studies reported no significant effects.
2) AA showed stronger associations, especially in dimensions such as self-confidence and self-efficacy, self-awareness and self-esteem, resilience, emotional and behavioral functioning, social competence, and cognitive development.
3) IA was most strongly associated with mental health and well-being outcomes, particularly in social functioning and emotional and behavioral functioning
[49–
50]. Although some studies also reported benefits for aspects of subjective well-being
[48], self-confidence, self-awareness, and resilience
[49], the supporting evidence was comparatively limited.
3.3 Association Between the Affordance Actualization and Intensity and Mental Health and Well-Being Benefits
The mental health and well-being benefits of blue spaces vary substantially depending on the affordance actualization and intensity.
1) PA are influenced by both the spatial distribution of environmental resources and individual characteristics. Several studies have suggested that the access to high-quality blue spaces is unequally distributed, shaped by family socio-economic status and the level of urbanization in residential areas
[32–
35,
37–
38]. Childhood proximity to blue spaces may have lasting effects on the mental health, emotional well-being, and cognitive development in adulthood. Although some researchers controlled for confounding variables such as urbanization, socio-economic status of family and neighborhood, parental age, and family history of mental disorders, they still called for consideration of additional moderating factors such as current stress levels and social connectedness
[30,
36]. Beyond the quantity of blue spaces, attention should also be paid to their quality and children's actual perception and use
[30].
2) AA tend to generate more immediate positive effects on children's mental health and well-being. Aquatic activities offer a "challenge–support" environment, where children can explore and gain experience within a safe setting, enhancing their self-awareness, self-confidence, and self-efficacy
[43,
45,
47]. Social interaction and cooperation during such activities not only strengthen social skills and cognitive empathy, but also reinforce peer relationships, social bonds, and shared values
[41,
44,
47], contributing to both short-term emotional improvement and long-term emotional well-being
[41–
47]. Importantly, these activities provide emotionally supportive contexts for children with prior social, emotional, or behavioral difficulties, serving as alternative or complementary psychosocial interventions
[41].
3) IA appears to further enhance the mental health benefits of blue spaces but is more dependent on the frequency and continuity of engagement, as well as participants' socioeconomic conditions. Although frequent beach visits have been associated with improvements in prosocial behaviors and peer relationships, these benefits are moderated by household financial status and transportation accessibility
[50]. Childhood interactions with blue spaces also contribute to greater well-being in adulthood, partially mediated by current nature exposure, physical activity levels, and intrinsic motivation to visit natural spaces
[48]. However, these associations vary across countries/regions and population groups. Children from lower socio-economic backgrounds are often disadvantaged in accessing blue spaces during childhood, which may result in compounding effects of nature deprivation and reduced mental well-being in later life.
4 Discussion
This scoping review highlights that the most consistent and robust benefits of childhood exposure to blue spaces are found in emotional and behavioral functioning, self-confidence and self-efficacy, and social functioning. These benefits increase as the degree of affordance actualization deepens, with IA being particularly critical. Factors such as socio-economic status, parental permission, and perceived safety not only influence the degree of affordance actualization but also help explain discrepancies among previous study findings. By extending the scope of the review to 75 rigorously evaluated studies, this research comparatively examines the health-promoting effects of blue spaces versus green spaces, and identifies IA as the key to understanding how blue spaces support children's mental health and well-being.
4.1 Differences Between Blue Spaces and Green Spaces in Promoting Mental Health and Well-Being
The immersive and socially engaging nature of blue spaces may encourage children to participate more actively, thereby enhancing their mental health and well-being. The frequency of use of both green and blue spaces has been linked to prosocial behaviors, peer relationships, and reduced behavioral problems of children
[50]. In the context of blue spaces, social interactions and shared experiences have been identified as primary motivations and perceived benefits of visitation
[51–
52]. Moreover, blue spaces appear to offer stronger effects than green spaces in emotional regulation and emotional well-being. Often perceived as emotional refuges
[53], blue spaces may reinforce repeated visits through their relaxing and stress-reducing qualities
[17].
Blue spaces may also play a more prominent role in fostering children's positive self-development, which may be attributed to their unique challenges and rich experiential opportunities. Among the inherent risks of blue spaces, drowning is a direct safety concern, whereas external conditions such as inclement weather may also influence children's opportunities for engagement. Both types of challenges, when properly managed, can provide valuable opportunities for enhancing children's self-confidence, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. In contrast, although schoolyard greening increases opportunities for outdoor activity, it has shown limited effects on improving self-esteem
[54].
4.2 The Critical Role of Affordance Actualization in Promoting Mental Health and Well-Being
Previous studies have emphasized the role of individual motivation in engaging with blue and green spaces as a key determinant to mental health and well-being
[15,
55]. However, this scoping review—through the lens of affordance theory—identifies the affordance actualization and intensity as the central mechanism by which children benefit from blue spaces. Compared with PA, AA and the corresponding IA more effectively predict mental health outcomes. In other words, the mental health and well-being of blue spaces largely depend on whether children can truly access and engage with the opportunities provided.
Children's perception and use of blue spaces are shaped by multiple factors that affect the extent of affordance actualization. Environmental attributes such as seasonality
[21], spatial quality
[15,
56], aesthetic appeal
[57], and biodiversity
[58] influence their experience quality of water bodies. Perceived safety further strengthens the willingness of children and their caregivers to visit these spaces, thereby reducing subjective barriers and increasing the likelihood of engagement
[57,
59]. Although the challenges and occasional negative experiences encountered during safe aquatic activities can foster self-awareness, self-confidence, and self-efficacy
[60], traumatic events such as hurricanes and floods during childhood may lead to anxiety disorders or post-traumatic stress
[61–
62]. Therefore, appropriate risk management in blue spaces is essential to mitigate potential harms and ensure that such environments remain conducive to children's well-being.
5 Practical Implications
Childhood engagement with blue spaces can be regarded as a "health prescription." However, the maximum benefits of such environments can only be realized when potential activity opportunities are transformed into experiences that are perceivable, accessible, and of sufficient intensity. Based on the review findings, this paper proposes four actionable recommendations for urban managers, landscape planners and designers, and educators.
First, governance strategies should combine safety management with equitable accessibility. A child-centered safety assessment system should be established, covering the full cycle from design to construction and operation. This includes implementing a dual care model that integrates on-site safety monitors with smart surveillance technologies. A graded risk classification and dynamic closure mechanism for blue spaces should be developed to issue timely warnings during extreme weather or flood events. Furthermore, the integration of public transit and active transport networks should be optimized to reduce the limitations that socio-economic disparities place on affordance actualization.
Second, a shift from "availability" to "engagement" is essential. The core value of blue spaces for children's mental health and well-being lies in opportunities for emotional resonance, social interaction, active exploration, and moderate risk-taking. Given adult concerns about safety
[63], it is crucial to promote a positive education about risk at the societal level—one that supports safe yet challenging play experiences. This shift can improve caregiver acceptance of spontaneous aquatic activities and foster a sociocultural environment conducive to affordance actualization.
Third, affordance-oriented spatial design must be implemented across multiple scales. At the micro-scale, shallow pools, misting devices, interactive fountains, and permeable pavements that temporarily retain rainwater can be embedded within school campuses, community parks, and street corners. Incorporating elements such as moldable sand or gravel, wadeable vegetation, and movable components provides opportunities for short-term, everyday interactions with water. At the meso-scale, the visual quality of riverfronts, lakeshores, and coastal zones can be enhanced to increase public perceptual value and overall attractiveness
[64]. At the macro-scale, urban blue–green corridors should link with natural wetlands, floodplain parks, and outdoor classrooms. This network can promote environmental equity by improving connectivity and access for socio-economically disadvantaged groups.
Fourth, activity programming should balance structured curricula with free play opportunities. Modular courses integrating water sports, environmental education, and psychological support can be developed. In communities with rich blue space resources, regular shared events—centered on team-based or cultural activities—can foster social connection. Meanwhile, more open time and sufficient open spaces should be reserved for unstructured, creative, and child-initiated water play that encourages their exploration and interaction with blue spaces.
6 Conclusions
This study innovatively introduced a conceptual framework based on levels of affordance to enhance the understanding of how children's interactions with blue spaces influence mental health and well-being. By extending the theoretical application of affordance theory to health-promoting environments, the study systematically reviewed existing literature and highlighted the central role of affordance actualization in realizing the mental health benefits by childhood blue space experiences. The key conclusions are as follows:
1) Overall, childhood interactions with blue spaces significantly contribute to various dimensions of mental health and well-being, including general mental health, resilience, social functioning self-confidence and self-efficacy, and emotional and behavioral functioning.
2) Despite being influenced by sociodemographic characteristics, household economic conditions, and urbanization levels of the living area, the actualization of affordances remains the core determinant of mental health benefits. Compared with potential affordances, the opportunities for children to perceive, engage with, and shape blue spaces are particularly critical.
3) By identifying the comparative advantages of blue spaces over green spaces—especially in promoting social functioning, emotional regulation, and self-confidence—this study enriched the theoretical foundation for understanding the relationship between urban nature and mental health. It also provides scientific evidences for incorporating blue spaces into public health interventions in urban environments.
Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the number of included studies remains limited, with a predominant focus on Western contexts. The lack of Chinese-language literature and the underdevelopment of local research constrain the applicability of these findings across diverse socio-geographic settings. Second, existing research often treats blue and green spaces undifferentiated, overlooking the distinctive mental health and well-being of blue spaces. In addition, some studies that did not distinguish between indoor and outdoor environments (e.g., swimming-related research) were excluded in this scoping review, which may have resulted in the omission of relevant evidence. Finally, the initial search retrieved an excessively large number of papers. Future research should employ more precise search terms tailored to the specific research theme to save research effort.
In addition, four directions are recommended here for future research that adopts child-centered designs and leverages the affordance framework to strengthen empirical evidence.
1) Expand the definition of blue spaces. From the child's perspective, water-related play spaces are not limited to large natural bodies of water. Future research should consider everyday water features—such as interactive fountains, splash pads, and small artificial streams—as target blue spaces.
2) Examine spatial features that support water-related activities. Research should identify which design attributes (e.g., form, accessibility, adjacent vegetation) most effectively stimulate children's engagement with water, and analyze the affordance resources that enrich their aquatic experiences.
3) Deepen empirical research on affordance actualization. Future research should focus on clarifying the mechanisms through which affordance actualization and intensity, shapes children's mental health and well-being. In addition, longitudinal studies combined with quantitative evaluation methods are warranted to investigate the enduring effects of childhood water-related experiences on mental health and well-being in adulthood.
4) Advance the explanatory framework for multi-level affordances. Existing research tends to emphasize the role of physical environmental support. Future studies should integrate sociocultural contexts and children's subjective emotional experiences to examine how multiple factors shape their engagement with blue spaces. Moreover, potential negative affordances and risks should be explored to fully understand the dual impacts of blue space exposure.
PDF
(1974KB)
