In many second-rotation Pinus radiata forest plantations, there has been a steady trend towards wider tree spacing and an increased rate of application of P fertiliser. Under these regimes, the potential for understory growth is expected to increase through increased light and greater nutrient resources. Therefore, understory vegetation could become a more significant component of P cycling in P. radiata forests than under closely-spaced stands. Studies have shown that growth rates and survival of trees is reduced in the presence of understory vegetation due to the competition of understory vegetation with trees. Other studies have suggested that understory vegetation might have beneficial effects on nutrient cycling and conservation within forest stands. This review discusses the significance of understory vegetation in radiata pine forest stands, especially their role in enhancing or reducing P availability to forest trees.

Forest gaps, openings in the canopy caused by death of one or more trees, have a profound effect on forest regeneration and drive the forest growth cycle. It is therefore necessary to understand the effects of forest gaps on regeneration for modern forest management. In order to provide a quantitative assessment of the effects of forest gaps on regeneration of woody plants, we conducted this review of gap effects on woody plant regeneration on the basis of 527 observations from 42 individual papers, and reported the results of these data in a meta-analysis. Overall, densities of regenerated woody plants were significantly greater (359%) in forest gaps than on the closed-canopy forest floor. The regeneration density in gaps of plantation forests was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than that of natural forest because the regeneration in gaps of plantation forests was improved by both gap effects and experimental measures. Similarly, in comparison to natural gaps, regeneration was better enhanced in artificial gaps. Regeneration density exhibited a significantly positive correlation with gap size, but a negative correlation with gap age because the gap size decreased with increasing gap age. Shade tolerance of woody plants affected regeneration density in gaps and understory. Average regeneration density of shade-tolerant species exhibited a significantly positive response to gaps but densities remained lower in total than those of intermediate and shade-intolerant species. Gap effects on regeneration decreased in response to increasing temperature and precipitation because of the limiting effects of lower temperature and moisture on woody plant regeneration. In summary, forest gaps enhance woody plant regeneration, and the effects of gaps varied by forest type, gap characteristics, environmental factors and plant traits. The results of this meta-analysis are useful for better understanding the effects and roles of gaps on forest regeneration and forest management.

We investigated the phytosociology, structure and dynamics of Pinus roxburghii in 40 stands in northern areas of Pakistan by using cluster analysis (Ward’s agglomerative clustering) and ordination (Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling). Cluster analysis revealed three major groups associated with specific environmental characteristics: (1) P. roxburghii (2) Pinus-Quercus baloot and (3) Pinus-Olea ferruginea community types. NMS-ordination showed the major gradient as an amalgam of elevation (r ² = 0.441, p <0.01) and slope (r ² = 0.391, p <0.05) as the two topographic factors correlated with species distribution. The first ordination axis also showed positive correlation with soil variables like pH and electrical conductivity, suggesting that soil chemistry was related to topographic characteristics and probably acted as a secondary gradient. We also examined size class distributions, age structures and growth rates of the three communities in order to describe community development and dynamics. Total tree density was 14700 plants/ha, with P. roxburghii having a relative density of 82% to 100%. Density of juvenile and total density and basal area of the subordinate tree species were low. The low density of trees in the smallest diameter size-class suggested that the recruitment of small P. roxburghii plants into the adult population may be lower than the required replacement rate for the stands. Pooled size-class distributions for the species showed a multimodal pattern with some regeneration gaps. Browsing, heavy logging and other anthropogenic activities were the overriding factors responsible for the poor recruitment of P. roxburghii. We concluded from the age structure that the forests were characterized by the dominance of young trees. Growth rate analysis revealed that P. roxburghii was the fastest growing species among the conifers species in Pakistan. In view of its relatively fast growth and longevity, P. roxburghii seems to be a suitable choice for short-term cultural practices in order to enhance wood production in lesser Himalaya and Hindukush ranges of Pakistan.

We investigated the influence of different levels of osmotic stress on growth and development in selected wild almond species (eight Prunus spp.) grown in vitro. The study, while endorsing the efficacy of in vitro screening of auxiliary buds of wild almond for osmotic stress tolerance, showed species variability in its response to osmotic stress. Osmotic stress reduced growth and development of all the species. However, the putative tolerant Prunus spp. showed better performance than the putative susceptible genotypes. On average there was an 80% decrease in shoot dry weight at −1.2 MPa. Reduction in shoot weight was more common in osmotic stress-susceptible species in the section labeled ‘Euamygdalus’. The tolerant Prunus species produced smaller changes in biochemical responses than the sensitive cultivars for malondialdehyde content, catalase activity, relative permeability of protoplast membranes, and net photosynthetic rate. The tolerant species maintained cell integrity better than drought sensitive species. Wild almond species in the section labeled ‘Spartioides’ (Prunus arabica (Olivier) Neikle, Prunus glauca (Browicz) A.E. Murray, Prunus scoparia Spach) and ‘Lycioides’ (Prunus lycioides Spach, Prunus reuteri Bossi. et Bushe) were best adapted to osmotic stress. Increase in chlorophyll concentration and leaf thickness under high osmotic stress can be considered as preliminary selection parameters for osmotic stress tolerance in Prunus spp. The study confirmed the efficacy of the in vitro method for screening of large number of genotypes for osmotic stress tolerance in wild almond species.

A Retraction Note to this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-025-01932-w.

We investigated the influence of different levels of osmotic stress on growth and development in selected wild almond species (eight Prunus spp.) grown in vitro. The study, while endorsing the efficacy of in vitro screening of auxiliary buds of wild almond for osmotic stress tolerance, showed species variability in its response to osmotic stress. Osmotic stress reduced growth and development of all the species. However, the putative tolerant Prunus spp. showed better performance than the putative susceptible genotypes. On average there was an 80% decrease in shoot dry weight at −1.2 MPa. Reduction in shoot weight was more common in osmotic stress-susceptible species in the section labeled ‘Euamygdalus’. The tolerant Prunus species produced smaller changes in biochemical responses than the sensitive cultivars for malondialdehyde content, catalase activity, relative permeability of protoplast membranes, and net photosynthetic rate. The tolerant species maintained cell integrity better than drought sensitive species. Wild almond species in the section labeled ‘Spartioides’ (Prunus arabica (Olivier) Neikle, Prunus glauca (Browicz) A.E. Murray, Prunus scoparia Spach) and ‘Lycioides’ (Prunus lycioides Spach, Prunus reuteri Bossi. et Bushe) were best adapted to osmotic stress. Increase in chlorophyll concentration and leaf thickness under high osmotic stress can be considered as preliminary selection parameters for osmotic stress tolerance in Prunus spp. The study confirmed the efficacy of the in vitro method for screening of large number of genotypes for osmotic stress tolerance in wild almond species.

The endangered tropical tree, Aquilaria malaccensis, produces agarwood for use in fragrance and medicines. Efforts are currently underway to produce valuable agarwood compoundsn tissue culture. The purpose of this study was to develop an optimal growth medium, specifically, the best hormone combination for callus suspension culture. Using nursery-grown A. malaccensis, sterilized leaf explants were first incubated on basic Murashige and Skoog (MS) gel medium containing 15g/L sucrose and at pH 5.7. Different auxin types including 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), were tested at various concentrations (0.55, 1.1 and 1.65 μM) using the basic medium. Leaf explants were incubated for 30 days in the dark. Callus induced by 1.1 μM NAA had the highest biomass dry weight (DW) of 17.3 mg; however the callus was of a compact type. This auxin concentration was then combined with either 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) or kinetin at 0.55, 1.1, 2.2 or 3.3 μM to induce growth of friable callus. The 1.1μM NAA + 2.2μM BAP combination produced friable callus with the highest biomass (93.3mg DW). When testing the different carbon sources and pHs, sucrose at 15g/L and pH at 5.7 yielded highest biomasses at 87.7mg and 83mg DW, respectively. Microscopic observations revealed the arrangement of the friable cells as loosely packed with relatively large cells, while for the compact callus, the cells were small and densely packed. We concluded that MS medium containing 15 g/L sucrose, 1.1 μM NAA + 2.2 μM BAP hormone combination, and a pH of 5.7 was highly effective for inducing friable callus from leaf explants of A. malaccensis for the purpose of establishing cell suspension culture.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) formed between plant roots and fungi is one of the most widespread symbiotic associations in nature. To understand the molecular mechanisms of AM formation, we profiled 30 symbiosis-related genes expressed in Amorpha fruticosa roots colonized by Glomus mosseae and in non-mycorrhizal roots at different stages using differential-display RT-PCR (DDRT-PCR). The expressed genes were confirmed by reverse Northern blotting. Eleven fragments were sequenced and putatively identified by homologous alignment. Of the eleven AM-related genes, five were obtained at the early-stage of plant-fungus interaction and six at the later stage. Three expressed sequence tag (ESTs) sequences were found to originate from the fungi and eight from the host plant by use of PCR evaluation of gDNA of both plant and fungi. The target genes included an ATP-binding cassette sub-family transporter gene, a transposon-insertion display band, and a photosynthesis-related gene. The results provided information on the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of mycorrhizal symbiosis between woody plants and AM fungi.

Siberian Pine (Pinus sibirica) is an ecologically and economically important species in pristine forests throughout northern Russia. Four provenances of P. sibirica were introduced from Mongolia and Russia to the Greater Xing’an Range (the Daxing’anling), northeast China in 1993. The aim of this research was to study genetic variation and selection of the introduced four Pinus sibirica provenances. Heights (H), basal diameters (BD), survival rates (SR) and crown lengths (CL) of different families were measured as primary outcomes in different growth years. Results of data analyses demonstrated high coefficients of phenotypic variation (PCV) and heritability (H ₂) for H, BD and CL at 18 years after introduction. PCV and H ₂ increased with age. Correlations of growth traits between any two growth years were all significantly positive, but the correlation coefficient was smaller when the growth year interval was larger. Correlations between H and the original environment factors decreased gradually, indicating that with long-term subsistence in the new environment, the influence of the source environment declined. Colligation of multiple traits to estimate provenances showed that Novosibirsk, Tomsk, and Altai Mountains had higher survival rates and biomass, and proved more suitable for introduction and plantation in the Greater Xing’an Range in China.

This paper reports on the effect of various micropropagation factors of Gmelina arborea Roxb. through multiple shoot induction. Factors like the source and age of explants, plant growth regulators (PGRs), media composition, and carbon source affected multiple shooting in the present study. Among all the explants used, only shoot tips derived from one, two, and three week old seedlings could form multiple shoots. Besides, the formation of multiple shoots depended on the concentration and combination of PGRs. Among all the PGRs, BAP (6-benzylaminopurine) alone gave the highest regeneration efficiency. Similarly, IBA (Indole-3-butyric acid) was the most efficient PGR in inducing root formation in the microshoots. Media composition and carbon source also affected the regeneration efficiency. MS (Murashige and Skoog medium) proved to be the best media for regeneration followed by B5, SH (Schenk and Hilderbrandt medium) and WPM (Woody plant medium) in that order. Similarly, among sugars, only sucrose and glucose supported induction of microshoots. Based on this study we recommend the use of glucose in place of sucrose in MS medium for maximum regeneration efficiency.

We studied relations between natural seedling reproduction and above ground environment in a longleaf pine ecosystem. Forty-eight 0.05 ha circular plots were sampled under single-tree selection, grouptree selection and control stands in three main longleaf pine areas in south Alabama, USA. We measured six above-ground environment factors, viz. canopy closure, stand density, basal area, average tree height, understory cover and PAR under canopy. We employed forward, backward and stepwise selection regression to produce one model. Three main variables: canopy closure, stand density and basal area, were left in the model; light, PAR and understory cover were not incorporated into the model at the 0.10 significance level. Basal area was a positive parameter, while canopy closure and stand density were negative parameters. Canopy closure was the main parameter in the model. The model proved to be meaningful, and has potential to provide useful guidance for future work.

We investigated the effect of forest thinning on soil nitrogen mineralization, nitrification and transformation in a Cryptomeria japonica plantation at high elevation to provide basic data for forest management. We chose four study plots for control, light, medium and heavy thinning treatment, and three sub-plots for buried bag studies at similar elevations in each treatment plot to measure the net N mineralization and nitrification rates in situ. The contents of soil inorganic N (ammonium and nitrate) were similar between treatments, but all varied with season, reaching maxima in September 2003 and 2004. The seasonal maximum net Nmin rates after four treatments were 0.182, 0.246, 0.303 and 0.560 mg·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹ in 2003, and 0.242, 0.258, 0.411 and 0.671 mg·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹in 2004, respectively. These estimates are approximate with the lower annual rates of N mineralization for this region. Forest thinning can enhance net N mineralization and microbial biomass carbon. The percentage of annual rates of Nmin for different levels of forest thinning compared with the control plot were 13.4%, 59.8% and 154.2% in 2003, and 0.1%, 58.8% and 157.7% in 2004 for light, medium, and heavy thinning, respectively. These differences were related to soil moisture, temperature, precipitation, and soil and vegetation types. Well-planned multi-site comparisons, both located within Taiwan and the East-Asia region, could greatly improve our knowledge of regional patterns in nitrogen cycling.

Litter production, decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of Ochlandra setigera, a rare endemic bamboo species of Nilgiri biosphere were studied during 2011–2012 using the standard litter bag technique. Annual litter production was 1.981 t·ha⁻¹ and was continuous throughout the year with monthly variations. Litterfall followed a triphasic pattern with two major peaks in November, 2011 and January, 2012 and a minor peak in July, 2011. The rate of decomposition in O. setigera was a good fit to the exponential decay model of Olson (1963). Litter quality and climatic conditions of the study site (maximum temperature, monthly rainfall and relative humidity) influenced the rate of decomposition. Nutrient release from the decomposing litter mass was in rank order N = Mg > K = Ca > P. Nutrient release from litter was continuous and it was in synchrony with growth of new culms. Study of litter dynamics is needed before introduction of a bamboo species into degraded or marginal lands or Agroforestry systems.

The alien woody legume, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), has invaded Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii) forests located in Japan’s coastal plain and hill regions where gaps are formed in pine forests after nematode infestation. Nitrogen fixation by legumes accelerates N cycling in forest ecosystems. We studied temporal change in the annual tree-ring resolution N stable isotope composition (δ¹⁵N, a per mil deviation of δ¹⁵N/¹⁴N ratio, relative to atmospheric N₂δ¹⁵N=0‰) at two natural locations of Japanese black pine forest with black locust that differed in the time since black locust establishment (Shohnai in northeast and Kita-Kyushu in southwest Japan). Analyzed tree-rings covered the period from 1990/1992 to 2009. N acquisition by Japanese black pine from black locust N input to the soil was evidenced by temporal shifting of N stable isotope composition on the annual pine tree rings. With progressive development of the forest stand, δ¹⁵N values of earlier tree-rings δ¹⁵N of −5‰) from black pine associated with black locust shifted towards values similar to those of black locust δ¹⁵N values nearly to −1‰), which suggests acquisition of N by N₂ fixation (Shohnai site). In contrast, in a forest where black locust had settled for two or three generations, in a black pine stand (Kita-Kyushu site), longer periods of N enrichment in the soil were reflected in the elevated tree-ring δ¹⁵N values of newly established black pine trees. Based on tree-ring δ¹⁵N data from the Shohnai site, we determined that about 10 years after black locust establishment, soil N had already been enriched by black locust N, this, in turn, contributed to N fertilization of surrounding trees in mixed stands.

From March 2007 to March 2009 we quantified plant diversity at Chilapatta Reserve Forest in Terai Duars in the Indian eastern Himalayas. We sampled stratified random nested quadrats. Species richness was 311, representing 167 genera and 81 families. The species diversity index and concentration of dominance of the forest were 2.20 and 0.0072, respectively. Shannon-Wiener index and evenness indices were 4.77 and 1.44, respectively. The Importance Value Index (IVI) of species ranged from 0.13 to 37.94. The estimated diversity indices indicated heterogeneity of the forest in its composition, structure, function and dynamics. Rich forest plant diversity supports the need for continued conservation of tropical forests.

Cropland agroforest is an important production system in the southwest region of Bangladesh. This study focused on the floristic composition and management of existing cropland agroforests. A total of 313 cropland agroforests were surveyed and 83% respondents practiced pure agroforestry while the remaining 17% practiced agroforestry with fisheries. A total of 18 forest trees and 2 shrubs were recorded from 11 families and 59 species of agricultural crops were from 28 families. A higher proportion (79%) of cropland agroforests were occupied small land areas (0.12–0.80 ha). About 63% of respondents planted trees for fruit production and 47% for timber production, and 35% of respondents engaged in commercial production (35%). Swietenia macrophylla was the most prevalent species (relative prevalence 20.83) followed by Mangifera indica (relative prevalence 15.57) and Cocos nucifera (relative prevalence 7.08). Shorter spacing was used for timber and fuel wood species and wider spacing for fruit trees. A wide range of rotation periods, from 5 to 25 years, was observed for both cases. The use of chemical fertilizer was highest followed by cow dung and compost in cropland agroforests. Overall management practices of cropland agroforest in southwest Bangladesh were determined by the end product and local demand.

Loss of mangroves and consequent habitat fragmentation is a major concern throughout the world’s tropical countries. Conversion of mangrove habitat due to aquaculture, agriculture, urbanization and industrialization, ecotourism, overlapping bureaucracy and conflicting policies is occurring at a striking rate. This paper reviews the trends of mangrove area changes in Bangladesh and compares them with four other countries in tropical regions that have significant mangrove areas. The rate of mangrove loss from the 1980 to 2005 was calculated using the compound interest rate formula for its explicit biological implication. In Bangladesh, the area of mangroves was found to have increased due to its higher accretion rate. In India the rate of mangrove loss had fallen. The rate of mangrove loss in Malaysia in the 1990s (−0.008 ha·a⁻¹) was higher than the 1980s (−0.004 ha·a⁻¹). In Indonesia, the rate decreased, from the 1980s (−0.018 ha·a⁻¹) to the 1990s (−0.010 ha·a⁻¹). Finally in Myanmar the rate of mangrove loss gradually accelerated. Aquaculture was found to be the common cause of mangrove conversion in the regions. Loss of mangroves is now a prominent global issue, associated with the loss of biodiversity, deterioration of habitat integrity, climatic changes, the amount of carbon sequestration, and resulting sea-level rise. Therefore, a systematic evaluation of these environmental impacts is prerequisite to realize sustainable mangrove management.

We investigated the effect of fire disturbance on short-term soil respiration in birch (Betula platyphylla Suk.) and larch (Larix gmelinii Rupr.) forests in Greater Xing’an range, northeastern China for further understanding of its effect on the carbon cycle in ecosystems. Our study show that post-fire soil respiration rates in B. platyphylla and L. gmelinii forests were reduced by 14% and 10%, respectively. In contrast, the soil heterotrophic respiration rates in the two types of forest were similar in post-fire and control plots. After fire, the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration was dramatically reduced. Variation in soil respiration rates was explained by soil moisture (W) and soil temperature (T) at a depth of 5 cm. Exponential regression fitted T and W models explained Rs rates in B. platyphylla control and post-fire plots (83.1% and 86.2%) and L. gmelinii control and post-fire plots (83.7% and 88.7%). In addition, the short-term temperature coefficients in B. platyphylla control and post-fire plots were 5.33 and 5, respectively, and 9.12, and 5.26 in L. gmelinii control and post-fire plots, respectively. Our results provide an empirical baseline for studying the effect of fire disturbance on soil carbon balance and estimation of soil carbon flux in boreal forest.

Understanding the age effect on soil carbon balance in forest ecosystems is important for other material cycles and forest management. In this research we investigated soil organic carbon density, litter production, litter decomposition rate, soil respiration, and soil microbial properties in a chronosequence of four Chinese fir plantations of 7, 16, 23 and 29 years at Dagangshan mountain range, Jiangxi Province, south China. There was a significant increasing trend in litter production with increasing plantation age. Litter decomposition rate and soil respiration, however, declined from the 7-year to the 16-year plantation, and then increased after 16 years. This was largely dependent on soil microorganisms. Soil carbon output was higher than carbon input before 16 years, and total soil carbon stock declined from 35.98 t·ha⁻¹ in the 7-year plantation to 30.12 t·ha⁻¹ in the 16-year plantation. Greater litter production could not explain the greater soil carbon stock, suggesting that forest growth impacted this microbial process that controlled rates of soil carbon balance together with litter and soil respiration. The results highlight the importance of the development stage in assessing soil carbon budget and its significance to future management of Chinese fir plantations.

The current trend of forest management in many countries is reduced use of clear-felling and planting, and increased use of continuous cover management. In Finland, the new forest act of 2014 made all types of cuttings equally allowable on the condition that if the post-cutting residual stand basal area is too low, the stand must be regenerated within certain time frame. Forest landowner can freely choose between even- and uneven-aged management. This study developed a method for optimizing the timing and type of cuttings without the need to categorize the management system as either even-aged or uneven-aged. A management system that does not set any requirements on the sequence of post-cutting diameter distributions is called any-aged management. Planting or sowing was used when stand basal area fell below the required minimum basal area and the amount of advance regeneration was less than required in the regulations. When the cuttings of 200 stands managed earlier with even-aged silviculture were optimized with the developed system, final felling followed by artificial regeneration was selected for almost 50% of stands. Reduction of the minimum basal area limit greatly decreased the use of artificial regeneration but improved profitability, suggesting that the truly optimal management would be to use natural regeneration in financially mature stands. The optimal type of thinning was high thinning in 97–99 % of cases. It was calculated that the minimum basal area requirement reduced the mean net present value of the stands by 12–16 % when discount rate was 3–5 %.

This study examines variations in the performance of participatory forest management programs among four forest management groups (FMGs) in southern Burkina Faso, and assesses the factors that influence their members’ perceptions of performance through a household survey of 216 members. Variations in performance scores among the FMGs were analyzed through multivariate analysis of variance while multinomial regression analysis was used to identify factors that influence their perception of the performance. The results reveal significant differences in performance scores among FMGs. Members of some FMGs perceived that the participatory forest management program enabled them to get benefits from the sale of fuelwood while performance scores in the forest conservation and decision-making processes is generally poor. The score for economic performance of FMGs in turn was related to better access to roads and markets. Group size tended to enhance economic performance via its strong influence on annual fuelwood harvest, while the resource base appeared to be inconsequential. Members of the forest management groups perceived that large group size and group heterogeneity, particularly in terms of ethnicity, as well as knowledge and awareness of problems related to the forest environment have no influence on the performance of their respective groups. For rural communities to have a favorable disposition toward sustainable forest management, differences in member understanding of collective actions and their impact before and during the implementation of participatory forest management programs should be considered.

In this study, we report Monopis crocicapitella (Clemens, 1859) (Tineidae), which was collected from bat guano in a cave in the southern region of Korea, for the first time from East Asia. We briefly redescribe and illustrate the external morphology and genital structures of both sexes. Also, we discuss the local habitat characteristics and some of the ecological information that was observed during our field investigation.

¹ Xylotrechus rusticus (Linnaeus) is one of the most destructive woodborers in northeast China; it damages poplar and is listed as a domestic forestry quarantine pest. Overwintering larvae were collected during October 2012 and March 2013 in Harbin, China, to quantify indicators related to the insect’s overwintering strategy and the major cryoprotectants. The supercooling points (SCPs), which ranged from −14.7°C to −2.9°C, were higher than the lethal temperatures of LT₅₀ (−33.64°C) and LT₉₉ (−40.17°C) after 24 h exposure., also the minimum mean daily temperature (−24.5°C) and mean monthly temperature (−18.0°C) at the sampling site in January during 2008–2012. Thus, X. rusticus is a typical freezing-tolerant insect. Glycerol serves as a major cryoprotectant for overwintering larvae, because it was the only polyol accumulated during the winter and it also had a significant negative correlation with the SCP (p= 0.033, R =0.907). The glycogen and lipid are major sources of energy and their levels decreased substantially in the middle of overwintering, when glycogen had a significant correlation with the SCP (p= 0.006, R =0.971) whereas the lipid contents did not. Moreover, inter-conversions between glycerol and glycogen, as well as mannose and glycogen, were suggested by their negative correlations. The water content did not change obviously during the winter and was not correlated with the SCP. The free amino acids in the hemolymph and the total protein contents of the bodies of larvae changed significantly during winter, although both had no correlations with the SCP.

We quantified species diversity of birds in mangroves at Kundapura from April-2010 to March-2013. We recorded 79 species of 36 families and 14 orders. Of these 71% are resident species, 22% are residential migrants and 8% are migratory. One endangered species, three near threatened species, and a few occasional visitors were recorded. Species diversity and abundance of birds were greater during from October through May as there was availability of food, increased vegetation and the arrival of migratory birds. Minimum diversity was recorded from June through September owing to heavy rains, increased flow of water, limited availability of food and return of migratory birds.

We used silane coupling agents to improve the bonding ability between wheat straw particles and UF resin, and investigated surface properties (wettability and surface roughness) and hardness of particleboard made from UF-bonded wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) combined with poplar wood as affected by silane coupling agent content and straw/poplar wood particle ratios. We manufactured one-layered particleboard panels at four different ratios of straw to poplar wood particles (0%, 15%, 30% and 45% wheat straw) and silane coupling agent content at three levels of 0, 5% and 10%. Roughness measurements, average roughness (R _a), mean peak-to-valley height (R _z), and root mean square roughness (R _q) were measured on unsanded samples by using a fine stylus tracing technique. We obtained contact angle measurements by using a goniometer connected to a digital camera and computer system. Boards containing greater amounts of poplar particles had superior hardness compared to control samples and had lower wettability. Panels made with higher amounts of silane had lower R _q values.

We used acoustic tests on a quarter-sawn poplar timbers to study the effects of wood anisotropy and cavity defects on acoustic wave velocity and travel path, and we investigated acoustic wave propagation behavior in wood. The timber specimens were first tested in unmodified condition and then tested after introduction of cavity defects of varying sizes to quantify the transmitting time of acoustic waves in laboratory conditions. Two-dimensional acoustic wave contour maps on the radial section of specimens were then simulated and analyzed based on the experimental data. We tested the relationship between wood grain and acoustic wave velocity as waves passed in various directions through wood. Wood anisotropy has significant effects on both velocity and travel path of acoustic waves, and the velocity of waves passing longitudinally through timbers exceeded the radial velocity. Moreover, cavity defects altered acoustic wave time contours on radial sections of timbers. Acoustic wave transits from an excitation point to the region behind a cavity in defective wood more slowly than in intact wood.

We studied the effect of loose tenon dimensions on stress and strain distributions in T-shaped mortise and loose tenon (M&LT) furniture joints under uniaxial bending loads, and determined the effects of loose tenon length (30, 45, 60, and 90 mm) and loose tenon thickness (6 and 8 mm) on bending moment capacity of M&LT joints constructed with polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive. Stress and strain distributions in joint elements were then estimated for each joint using ANSYS finite element (FE) software. The bending moment capacity of joints increased significantly with thickness and length of the tenon. Based on the FE analysis results, under uniaxial bending, the highest shear stress values were obtained in the middle parts of the tenon, while the highest shear elastic strain values were estimated in glue lines between the tenon surfaces and walls of the mortise. Shear stress and shear elastic strain values in joint elements generally increased with tenon dimensions and corresponding bending moment capacities. There was consistency between predicted maximum shear stress values and failure modes of the joints.

Proper matching of forestry machinery is important when raising mechanization levels for forestry production. In the matching process, forestry machinery needs not only expertise, but also improved methods for solving problems. I propose combination of case-based reasoning (CBR) and rule-based reasoning (RBR) by calculating the similarity of quantitative parameters of various forestry machines in an analytical and hierarchical process. I calculated the similarity of machinery used in forest industries to enable better selection and matching of equipment. I propose a weight-value adjusting method based on sums of squares of deviations in which the individual parameter weights were modified in the process of application. During the process of system design, I put forward a design method knowledge base and generated a dynamic web reasoning framework to integrate the processes of forest industry machinery selection and weight-value adjustment. This enables expansion of the scope of the complete system and enhancement of the reasoning efficiency. I demonstrate the validity and practicability of this method using a practical example.

We collected soil samples from two representative sites at Aatmile of Khagarachari hill district in Chittagong Hill Tracts. One of the sites was under shifting cultivation and the other an adjacent 13-year old teak plantation. Both sites were in the same physiographic condition and same aspect with parable soil type, which enabled us to measure the effects of shifting cultivation on soil micro-flora. We studied soil physicochemical properties and the biochemical and biological properties of soil microbes. Moisture and organic matter content as well as fungi and bacterial populations, both in surface and subsurface soils, were significantly (p ≤0.001) lower in shifting cultivated soils compared to soils not under shifting cultivation, i.e. the teak plantation site. The most abundant bacteria in surface (0–10 cm) and sub-surface (10–20 cm) soils under shifting cultivation were Pseudomonas diminuta and Shigella, respectively, while in corresponding soil layers of teak plantation, predominant microbes were Bacillus firmus (0–10 cm) and Xanthomonas (10–20 cm). The microbial population differences cannot be explained by soil texture differences because of the textural similarity in soils from the two sites but could be related to the significantly lower moisture and organic matter contents in soils under shifting cultivation.

Guggal, a threatened species that is endemic to western India, is tapped to extract medicinally important oleo-gum-resin (guggul). However, the plant dies after gum exudation. The indigenous tapping techniques used by local people were examined in Gujarat, India to discover the scientific basis behind these techniques: selection of gum inducer, season of tapping, and plant parts to be tapped. First, the presence of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. commiphorae (Xac) in the gum suspension used for tapping was established. This bacterium induces gum oozing from the tapped plants and later, causes them to die off. The population of Xac in gum was found to decrease with the age of the gum. With that, fresh gum increased the tapping success. Second, local people preferred tapping during the warm season, which we validated by determining that Xac growth was best at 30 °C. Tapping during September (mean temperature 25.7–30 °C) clearly favoured growth of the pathogen and yielded maximum guggul. Multiple tapping on a mature tree ensured maximum gum extraction before its death. Finally, application of indigenous technology under natural plant stands by the local people ensured availability of this important raw drug for consumption. Our study established that the age-old traditional methods have a strong scientific basis. However, it is imperative to formulate strategies based on contemporary scientific understanding to protect this natural resource before it becomes extinct.

This study was designed to isolate endophytic fungi from A. mongholicus (growing in northeast China) to determine whether they can produce bioactive metabolites. Four strains of endophytic fungi (strains 16, 17, 23 and 75) were successfully isolated from A. mongholicus using the surface disinfection method. According to ITS-rDNA sequences analysis, strains 16 and 75 were identified as Fusarium oxysporum, and strains 17 and 23 were identified as Bionectria ochroleuca. We applied the Box-Behnken design (BBD) to optimize the liquid fermentation conditions and obtain the maximum cell dry weight (CDW) yield. Optimal parameters were obtained under the following experimental conditions: temperature of 28°C, potato dextrose agar (PDA) liquid medium of 80 mL and rotation speed of 150 rpm. The four isolated endophytic fungi did not produce astragalosides I–IV, flavonoids or polysaccharides. Isolation of additional species of endophytic fungi from A. mongholicus and determination of their capacity to produce biologically active substances are subjects in need of further research.

A total of 3611 fungal isolates were recovered from 4200 leaf segments incubated from 7 medicinal herbs during monsoon, winter and summer seasons. These fungal isolates belonged to teleomorphic Ascomycota (23.5%), anamorphic Ascomycota producing conidiomata (17.4%), anamorphic Ascomycota without conidiomata (46.9%), Zygomycota (1.42%) and sterile forms (10.6%). Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium pullulans, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp., Pestalotiopsis spp., Trichoderma viridae, Cladosporium cladosporioides, were frequently isolated from more than one host plant. The number of endophytic isolates was higher in winter than in monsoon and summer seasons.

Northeastern India has high medicinal plant diversity due to variance in topography and physiognomy. We documented the uses of various medicinal plants by the Bengali people of West district and South district of Tripura state for their own health care as well as for domesticated animals. Based on semi structured interviews, group discussions and information from local informants, a total of 93 species of medicinal plants of 52 families and 83 genera were documented. These plants were used to treat more than 55 different human diseases and 6 diseases of livestock. Sixty-eight plant species were used singly and the rest were used in combination with other species for therapeutic formulations of various diseases. Leaves of plants were most often used for most of the ethnobotanical preparations. Maximum consensus value of 96% was recorded for Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & H. Rob., and the minimum was 15% for Bambusa balcooa Robx. Of the 93 plant species, 75 species showed pharmacological properties. Prospects for augmenting existing knowledge and enhancing the use of traditional medicinal plants are discussed.

Forty-five species of wild edible fruits were identified and traditional local knowledge of their usage was recorded in 40 villages of Kodagu district in Central Western Ghats, India one of the eight top hotspots of biodiversity in the world. We combined biodiversity inventory of trees with village interviews to record traditional ecological knowledge. Wild edible fruits were an opportunistic source of food for rural people. Wild edible fruits were rich in minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and fiber. In recent years there has been a decline in numbers of wild fruit trees due to changes in land use from uncultivated private wooded area to cardamom and coffee cultivation. The availability of wild edible fruits that were once very common on private cultivated areas has declined and their distributions are now restricted more to jungles and wildlife sanctuaries. We propose methods for conservation and describe the need for sustainable utilization to provide supplementary sources of nutritional and pharmaceutically useful edible wild fruits.