Undulations in weather patterns have caused climate shifts of increased frequency and duration around the world. The need for additional research and model data on this pressing problem has resulted in a plethora of research groups examining a particular tree species or biome for negative effects of climate change. This review aims to (1) collect and merge recent research data on regeneration within old- and new-growth forests, (2) highlight and expand upon selected topics for additional discussion, and (3) report how shade tolerance, drought tolerance, and inherent plasticity affect tree growth and development. Although shade and drought tolerance have been well studied by a number of research groups, this review reveals that in-depth analysis of a single or a few species in a given area will not generate the data required to implement a successful regeneration plan. Studies using historical accounts of previous species composition, information regarding site seasonality, species competition, and individual responses to drought and shade are needed to (1) develop best management plans and (2) ensure future modeling experiments are focused on a greater variety of species using more innovative methods to evaluate climate change effects.

Sacred groves are patches of forests preserved for their spiritual and religious significance. The practice gained relevance with the spread of agriculture that caused large-scale deforestation affecting biodiversity and watersheds. Sacred groves may lose their prominence nowadays, but are still relevant in Indian rural landscapes inhabited by traditional communities. The recent rise of interest in this tradition encouraged scientific study that despite its pan-Indian distribution, focused on India’s northeast, Western Ghats and east coast either for their global/importance or unique ecosystems. Most studies focused on flora, mainly angiosperms, and the faunal studies concentrated on vertebrates while lower life forms were grossly neglected. Studies on ecosystem functioning are few although observations are available. Most studies attributed watershed protection values to sacred groves but hardly highlighted hydrological process or water yield in comparison with other land use types. The grove studies require diversification from a stereotyped path and must move towards creating credible scientific foundations for conservation. Documentation should continue in unexplored areas but more work is needed on basic ecological functions and ecosystem dynamics to strengthen planning for scientifically sound sacred grove management.

We focused on key aspects of forest governance for biodiversity conservation in implementing new climate change policies. The national forest institutions must be adaptive to identify the existing pitfalls of prior conservation policies to take advantage of new climate change policies. Strengthening roles and technical capacity of national institutions for systematic biodiversity monitoring and carbon stock assessment is required in developing and least developed countries. Community participation needs careful analysis to ensure equitable access of particular social groups to local decision-making processes and to sustain optional livelihoods. The livelihood options around forest reserves or protected areas must be taken into account to enhance forest-based adaptation.

We review the current status of experimental studies in India to understand the linkages between afforestation and hydrology. This discipline deals with the use and management of water, social awareness of environmental problems, and ecosystem limitations on provision of watershed services by river basins in the mountain regions of India. Our review begins with examination of experimental works in tropical countries and proceeds to discussion of initiatives of Indian research institutes and Government organizations towards establishing experimental watersheds to understand the impacts of land cover changes on hydrologic regimes in the Indian sub-continent. This is followed by the review of the experimental work carried out by various authors to assess the impact of land cover changes on major water balance components such as, runoff, groundwater, evapotranspiration and sediment yield. The spatial scales of these experiments have been limited to small watersheds or field plots. This paper also describes impacts of human interventions (such as plantations of exotic forest species to restore degraded landscapes) on the water balance components in diverse hydro-geo-environmental conditions in the Indian sub-continent. We focus on identifying the research areas which require immediate attention to develop tools to assist planners and policy makers in assessing and managing the water resources in these complex environments. The review is largely based on research results reported during the last 20 to 30 years.

Accurate and efficient estimation of forest growth and live biomass is a critical element in assessing potential responses to forest management and environmental change. The objective of this study was to develop models to predict longleaf pine tree diameter at breast height (dbh) and merchantable stem volume (V) using data obtained from field measurements. We used longleaf pine tree data from 3,376 planted trees on 127 permanent plots located in the U.S. Gulf Coastal Plain region to fit equations to predict dbh and V as functions of tree height (H) and crown area (CA). Prediction of dbh as a function of H improved when CA was added as an additional independent variable. Similarly, predictions of V based on H improved when CA was included. Incorporation of additional stand variables such as age, site index, dominant height, and stand density were also evaluated but resulted in only small improvements in model performance. For model testing we used data from planted and naturally-regenerated trees located inside and outside the geographic area used for model fitting. Our results suggest that the models are a robust alternative for dbh and V estimations when H and CA are known on planted stands with potential for naturally-regenerated stands, across a wide range of ages. We discuss the importance of these models for use with metrics derived from remote sensing data.

As one of the three major five-leaved pines in the northern hemisphere, Pinus koraiensis is the most important dominant tree species in the natural mixed-broadleaved Korean pine forests. However, the regeneration of P. koraiensis under the canopy of secondary forest stands is poor because of the light limitation. This study was conducted to understand how P. koraiensis seedlings adapt to different light intensities and what would be the optimum light level for their establishment and growth. Three repetition plots with four light intensities (15%, 30%, 60% and 100% of the natural incident irradiances, achieved by suspending layers of black nylon net above and surrounding the plots) were set up under natural climate conditions in a montane region in eastern Liaoning Province, Northeast China. A total of 80 P. koraiensis seedlings with similar height and root collar diameter were transplanted into four plots. After one year of acclimation to the specific light conditions, the seasonal variations of the photosynthetic variables and needle traits of the current and one-year-old needles, and the growth parameters were observed under four light intensities. The results indicated that: (1) The seedling at 60% treatment exhibited the greatest growth, which agreed with the response of the light-saturated photosynthetic rates (A _max) and the dark respiration rate (R _d) in the current and one-year-old needles, i.e., R _d at 60% treatment was significantly lower than that at 100% treatment, but A _max did not differ between the seedlings at 100% and 60% treatments. (2) The P. koraiensis seedlings have a certain photosynthetic plasticity to adapt the light conditions by adjusting their needle traits and regulating the physiological processes, because A _max, R _d, light saturation point and compensation point, the needle mass area, needle nitrogen and chlorophyll contents were significantly (p<0.05) correlated with the light intensities. Especially, A _max at 100% and 60% treatments was significantly higher (p<0.05) than that at 30% and 15% treatments for both current and one-year-old needles. (3) The needles of different ages played a commutative role during the growing season, i.e., the one-year-old needles played a major role for the photosynthesis in the early growing season; the current year needles did in the later growing season. This ensured the effective photosynthesis throughout the growing season. These findings suggest that P. koraiensis is the in-between heliophilous and shade-tolerant tree species at least for the seedlings up to 8 years.

In Central Europe, a large portion of post-mining sites were afforested with Scots pine, which is characterized by good adaptability and a tolerance for poor habitat at the beginning of forest ecosystem development. Conversion of monoculture on mine sites into more biodiverse mixed hardwood forests, especially on more fertile deposits, can be an emerging need in this part of Europe in next decades. The ability to classify the forests at these post-mining sites will facilitate proper species selection as well as the management and formation of the developed ecosystem’s stability. This work describes the guidelines that can be followed to assess reclaimed mine soil (RMS) quality, using the mine soil quality index (MSQI) and a classification of developed forest sites as a basis of tree-stand species selection and conversion of pine monocultures. The research was conducted on four post-mining facilities (lignite, hard coal, sulphur, and sand pit mining areas) on different RMS substrates dominant in Central Europe. Soil quality assessment takes into account the following features of the soil: texture soil nutrients (Ca, Mg, K, Na, P); acidity (pH KCl); and C_org-to-N_t ratio in the initial organic horizon. An analysis was conducted of classification systems using the MSQI validation correlation (at p =0.05) with vegetation features affected by succession: aboveground biomass of forest floor and ecological indicators of vascular plants (calculated on the basis of Ellenberg’s (2009) system). Eventually, in the analysed data set, the MSQI ranged from 0.270 for soils on quaternary sands to 0.720 for a mix of quaternary loamy sands with neogene clays. Potential forest habitat types and the role of the pine in the next generation of tree stands on different RMS parent rock substrate were proposed.

Teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) ranks among the top five tropical hardwood species and is being promoted for use in plantations in its non-native range due to its high economic value. However, there is a general lack of data on ecosystem functioning of teak plantations. We aimed at understanding storage and flux of nutrients related to young plantations of teak. Cycling of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in a chronosequence of plantations (1, 5, 11, 18, 24 and 30 years) was studied in the Moist Deciduous Forest Region of North India with the objective of investigating the nutrient cycling pattern at younger age since the current trend of harvesting age of the species in several tropical countries is being drastically reduced for quick return from this high value crop. Standing state, nutrient uptake, nutrient return and nutrient retranslocation in these plantations were estimated by tree harvesting and chemical analysis methods. The range of total standing nutrient across all these plantations was 20.3 to 586.6 kg·ha⁻¹ for N and 5.3 to 208.8 kg·ha⁻¹ for P. Net uptake of N ranged from 19.4 to 88.9 kg·ha⁻¹·a⁻¹ and P from 3.8 to 18.1 kg·ha⁻¹·a⁻¹. Retranslocation of N and P among all the stands ranged from 8.7 to 48.0 kg·ha⁻¹·a⁻¹ and 0.01 to 3.5 kg·ha⁻¹·a⁻¹, respectively. Range of total nutrient return was 25.8 to 91.3 kg·ha⁻¹·a⁻¹ for N and 2.7 to 10.1 kg·ha⁻¹·a⁻¹ for P. N and P use efficiency was between 107.4 and 192.5 g dry organic matter (OM) g⁻¹ N, and 551.9 and 841.1 g OM g⁻¹ P, respectively. The turnover time ranged from 2.04–13.17 years for N and between 2.40–22.66 years for P. Quantity of N and P in the soil nutrient pool ranged from 2566.8 to 4426.8 kg·ha⁻¹ and 372 to 520 kg·ha⁻¹, respectively. Storage and flux of components in different plant parts of different aged plantations were assessed and depicted in compartment models. Percentage storage in soil, litter and vegetation ranged from 82% to 99%, 0.6% to 2.4% and 0.5% to 15% for N, respectively, and from 63% to 98%, 0.5% to 2% and 1% to 35% for P, respectively. This information could be useful in managing external nutrient manipulation to crops of different ages for optimum biomass production or carbon sequestration.

This paper presents an approach based on field data to model the spatial distribution of the site productivity index (SPI) of the diverse forest types in Jalisco, Mexico and the response in SPI to site and climatic conditions. A linear regression model was constructed to test the hypothesis that site and climate variables can be used to predict the SPI of the major forest types in Jalisco. SPI varied significantly with topography (elevation, aspect and slope), soil attributes (pH, sand and silt), climate (temperature and precipitation zones) and forest type. The most important variable in the model was forest type, which accounted for 35% of the variability in SPI. Temperature and precipitation accounted for 8 to 9% of the variability in SPI while the soil attributes accounted for less than 4% of the variability observed in SPI. No significant differences were detected between the observed and predicted SPI for the individual forest types. The linear regression model was used to develop maps of the spatial variability in predicted SPI for the individual forest types in the state. The spatial site productivity models developed in this study provides a basis for understanding the complex relationship that exists between forest productivity and site and climatic conditions in the state. Findings of this study will assist resource managers in making cost-effective decisions about the management of individual forest types in the state of Jalisco, Mexico.

Removal of trees and shrubs from hillsides exposes a site to erosion that threatens soil aggregation and stability. The present study aimed at evaluating the performance of five indigenous tree species in rehabilitation of degraded hillsides of Kuriftu Lake Catchment and the role of water harvesting structures. Adaptability varied by tree species and water harvesting structures significantly augmented seedling establishment for some tree species. Height of Acacia abyssinica planted on steeper slopes (18%–27%) without infiltration pits was lower than for conspecifics planted with infiltration pits. Dodonaea angustifolia was proved to be best adapted to the site and showed no need for water harvesting regardless of planting position across the degraded hillside. Planting of Acacia seyal should be restricted to gentler slopes (0–17%) with infiltration pits: tree height declined significantly on steep slopes without infiltration pits. Olea africana performed better on gentle slopes with pits but also grew well on steeper slopes with pits. Euclea schimperi was proved to be least effective of the species evaluated in this study.

Forest fires in mountainous areas can cause severe deforestation which can potentially trigger secondary natural hazards like debris falls and avalanches. We documented an extreme case study for the range of possible post-fire land cover (LC) dynamics. We investigated a 15-ha, steep (10°–65°) burnt slope in Styria (Austria) at elevation of 760°-113 m, which burned in 1946 and has not fully recovered to date. Seven 8-class legend LC maps were produced (1954, 1966, 1973, 1982, 1998, 2004, 2009) and integrated in a vector-based GIS, mainly by on-screen interpretation of aerial photos. Our aim was to clarify how post-wildfire LC dynamics take place on a severely damaged, steep slope and to give a basic projection of the future vegetation recovery process. The pre-fire Pinus sylvestris stands have been mainly replaced by Picea abies and Larix decidua. Regeneration proceeded mainly from the base of the slope upwards. All tree species together still cover no more than 40% of the slope after more than 60 years of recovery, while grassland communities and rock/debris areas have expanded. Multitemporal analysis showed a slow but steady increase in woodland cover. Degraded rock/debris areas, however, expanded as well because soil erosion and related debris flows remained active. Slope angle (with a threshold value of approx. 35-40°) seemed to control whether erosion or regeneration prevailed. According to a simple extrapolation, the slope will not reach its former condition before 2070. This extreme disturbance window of more than 120 years is owed to the steepness of the slope and to the shallow soils on dolomitic bedrock that were severely damaged by the fire. The neglect of any game fencing is a further factor slowing regeneration.

Zagros forests are mainly covered by Quercus brantii L. coppices and oak sprout clumps occupy the forest area like patches. We investigated post-fire herbaceous diversity in the first growing season after fire. For this purpose neighboring burned and unburned areas were selected with the same plant species and ecological conditions. The data were collected from areas subjected to different fire severities. Overall 6 treatments were considered with respect to fire severity and the microsites of inside and outside of oak sprout clumps including: unburned inside and outside of sprout clumps (Ni and No), inside of sprout clumps that burned with high fire severity (H), inside of sprout clumps that burned with moderate fire severity (M), outside of sprout clumps that burned with low fire severity (OH and OM). Different herbaceous composition was observed in the unburned inside and outside of oak sprout clumps. The species diversity and richness were increased in treatments burned with low and moderate fire severity. However, in treatment burned with high fire severity (H), herbaceous cover was reduced, evenness was increased, and richness and diversity were not significantly changed. We concluded that besides the microsites conditions in forest, fire severity is an inseparable part of the ecological effect of fire on herbaceous composition.

We report the results of carbon stored in soil and aboveground biomass from the most important area of mangroves in Mexico, with dominant vegetation of Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.), Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans L.), white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa Gaertn.) and button mangrove (Conocarpus erectus L.). We sampled soils with high fertility during the dry season in 2009 and 2010 at three sites on Atasta Peninsula, Campeche. We used allometric equations to estimate above ground biomass (AGB) of trees. AGB was higher in C. erectus (253.18±32.17 t·ha⁻¹), lower in A. germinans (161.93±12.63 t·ha⁻¹), and intermediate in R. mangle (181.70±16.58 t·ha⁻¹) and L. racemosa (206.07±19.12 t·ha⁻¹). Of the three studied sites, the highest absolute value for AGB was 279.72 t·ha⁻¹ in button mangrove forest at any single site. Carbon stored in soil at the three sites ranged from 36.80±10.27 to 235.77±66.11 t·ha⁻¹. The Tukey test (p <0.05) made for AGB was higher for black mangrove showed significant differences in soil carbon content between black mangrove and button mangrove. C. erectus had higher AGB compared with the other species. A. germinans trees had lower AGB because they grew in hypersaline environments, which reduced their development. C. erectus grew on higher ground where soils were richer in nutrients. AGB tended to be low in areas near the sea and increased with distance from the coast. A. germinans usually grew on recently deposited sediments. We assumed that all sites have the same potential to store carbon in soil, and then we found that there were no significant differences in carbon content between the three samples sites: all sites had potential to store carbon for long periods. Carbon storage at the three sampling sites in the state of Campeche, Mexico, was higher than that reported for other locations.

The city of Tehran, like many polluted metropolises of the world, has higher emissions of greenhouse gases than other cities in Iran, due to heavy consumption of fossil fuel and landuse changes. To estimate carbon sequestration in two 40 year-old stands of planted Cupressus arizonica and Fraxinus rotundifolia in degraded lands surrounding Tehran, sampling of above- and below-ground biomass, soil (at two depths of 0–15 and 15–30 cm), and leaf litter was done by systematic random sampling. The total carbon stocks of C. arizonica and F. rotundifolia stands were respectively 328.20 and 150.69 Mg·ha⁻¹. The aboveground biomass with 233.16(71%) Mg·ha⁻¹ in C. arizonica and 88.16 (58.50%) Mg·ha⁻¹ in F. rotundifolia contributed the most shares to carbon sequestration. The diameter at breast height, total height, basal area, total volume, and biomass of C. arizonica were significantly (p <0.01) higher than those of F. rotundifolia. Also the depth of 02–30 cm of soil contributed between 18.29 % and 32.15 % of total ecosystem carbon, respectively. The economic value of carbon sequestration in the two stands in 2011 was calculated at 3.5 and 2.5 million dollars, respectively. Our results indicate that afforestation of the degraded land surrounding Tehran would sequester more carbon than would continuously degraded land, the current status quo. These stands can absorb atmospheric CO₂ at different rates, thus tree species selection and stand development should be considered in planning future afforestation projects.

This work studied the effects of tree species composition on soil carbon storage in five mixed stands dominated by oriental beech and grown in the western Caspian region in Guilan province, called Astara, Asalem, Fuman, Chere and Shenrud. The thickness of the litter layer, soil characteristics, tree composition and percentage of canopy coverage were measured in each stand. Total soil organic carbon differed significantly by stand. Total (organic) carbon stores at Fuman, which had the lowest tree species richness with 2 species and least canopy coverage (75%), were significantly (p <0.05) higher than at other locations. Carbon storage in topsoil (0–10 cm) was significantly lower in Shenrud, which had the highest tree species richness with 5 species and highest canopy coverage (95%). The high percentage of canopy coverage in Shenrud probably limited the conversion of litter to humus. However, in the second soil layer (10–25 cm), Asalem, with high tree species richness and canopy coverage, had the highest carbon storage. This can be explained by the different rooting patterns of different tree species. In the Hyrcanian forest. According to the results, it can be concluded that not only tree composition but also canopy coverage percentage should be taken under consideration to manage soil carbon retention and release.

We quantified cell membrane permeability (electrical conductivity-EC, water soluble sugar-WSS, and amino acids-AA) and integrity (phospholipids, α-tocopherol and lipid peroxidation) along with food reserve deterioration (total proteins, total sugar, and total starch) of neem seeds collected from various mother tree age classes and stored for 65 days in airtight plastic containers at ambient room temperature (35±5°C). Results show that the activities were higher in fresh seeds (EC 267.56–2950.01 μS/g, WSS 19.96–19.48 mg/g and AA 5.40–5.35 mg/g) and declined with increasing duration of storage period (EC 153.37–195.17 μS/g, WSS 3.13–4.17 mg/g and AA 4.29–4.49 mg/g after 35 days and EC 144.02–161.56 μS/g, WSS 2.06–2.40 mg/g and AA 3.98–4.27 mg/g after 65 days of storage). Phospholipids and α-tocopherol were higher in fresh seed (0.073–0.093 OD at 710 nm and 0.080–0.105 OD, respectively) and declined as storage duration increased (0.033–0.042 OD at 710 nm and 00.0010–0.0020 OD, respectively). Dead seeds showed reduced amounts of phospholipids and minimum activity of α-tocopherol (antioxidants). The level of MDA was lower in fresh seeds (0.0066–0.0087 OD at 600–535 nm) and increased as storage duration increased (0.0248–0.0268 OD after 65 days of storage). The higher amount of MDA indicated that seeds died due to rancidity of the oil inside the seed. Neem seed cake was assessed for deterioration of food reserves (total proteins, total sugar, and total starch), concentrations of which were higher in fresh seed and declined as storage duration increased. Germination was higher in fresh seeds and after 65 days, no germination was received perhaps due to deterioration of biochemicals in seeds. Patterns of seed deterioration were similar across all seed lots.

The morphogenetic responses to salt stress of Tunisian Populus alba clones were studied in order to promote their plantation in damaged saline areas. One year-old plants of three P. alba clones (MA-104, MA-195 and OG) were subjected to progressive salt stress by irrigation during two consecutive years. The plants were grown in a nursery, inside plastic receptacles containing sandy soil and were irrigated with tap water (control) or 3–6 g/l NaCl solution. During this study, leaf epinasty, elongation rate, vigor, internode length, plant architecture, and number of buds were evaluated. Test clone response was highly dependent on the applied treatment and degree of accommodation. The most pronounced alterations were induced under 6g/l of NaCl treatment including leaf epinasty, leaf elongation rate delay, vigor decrease, internode length shortening, and morphogenetic modifications. These responses were less noticeable in the MA-104 clone with respect to the two other clones. The salt effect induced a delay in the leaf elongation rate on the MA-195 and OG clones leading to an early leaf maturity. The vigour and internode length of the MA-104 clone was less affected than the other clones. The OG clone was the most salt-sensitive thus, it developed shorter branches and more buds number than MA-195 and MA-104. The effect of long-term salt stress was to induce early flowering of the P. alba clones which suggests that mechanism of salt accommodation could be developed.

Cultivation of bay leaves (Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm) to fulfil household income needs is a long established practice in Udayapur district of Nepal. The practices adopted by farmers for bay leaf harvesting have not, however, been validated by scientific investigation for their sustainability. To investigate the impacts of harvesting on the yield of branch, leaves and biomass of leaves, a two-year research project was conducted in farm fields at Kopche village of Routa VDC in Udayapur district, Nepal. Four different harvesting treatments, the orientation and the order of branches were taken as independent variables to test their effects on number of branches, leaves and biomass of leaves. Orientation, harvesting treatments and order of branches had a significant effect on the number of branches, but not on the number of leaves or biomass (fresh and dry weight) of leaves in the year of harvest. Between two consecutive harvests there was no significant difference in the number of branches, leaves or biomass. Lower two-thirds portion of the trees produced the largest number of leaves and branches of the fourth order in both years. Therefore, lower two-thirds portion of the trees were suitable for harvesting. Our findings support farmer experience that no change in productivity of leaves is observed when harvesting each year. For long term sustainability, harvesting should be conducted without debarking of trees or damage to branches. Our findings could be extrapolated to and tested in other areas with different access and user rights where the rotation for harvest is fixed or regulated without research evidence.

We investigated the effects of selective logging disturbances on tree diversity and soil characteristics in the Bia Conservation Area in southwest Ghana. The study was conducted in unlogged, 29–35 years post-logged and swamp forests using ten 25 m × 25 m plots. In total, we identified 310 individual trees belonging to 87 species. Mean Shannon-Weiner index was highest in the post-logged forest but there were no significant differences in tree density, dominance, or DBH size class distributions between these forests. Soil physical properties such as pH and bulk density up to 30 cm depth were similar in the two of forests In terms of soil nutrient status, available P, exchangeable K and total N contents were all similar in the unlogged and post-logged forests. Our findings suggest that the effects of logging on tree diversity are comparatively long-term, in contrast to its short-term effects on some top soil physical and chemical characteristics.

Landscape structure is often regarded as an important factor that governs the distribution and abundance of species. Therefore it is critical to understand the landscapes and their dynamics. Patterns of landscape elements strongly influence the ecological characteristics. This study was designed to document and map the current status of the tropical dry deciduous forest of the Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR), Central India, (using IRS P6 LISS IV data) and to describe its landscape structure at three levels of organization viz. landscape, class, and patch. The study area was classified into 10 land cover classes that include 6 vegetation classes. The landscape structure was analyzed using FRAGSTATS using 12 set of indices. The TATR landscapes have a total of 2,307 patches with a mean patch size of 25.67 ha and patch density of 1.7 patches per km². Amongst all land cover classes, mixed bamboo forest is dominant—it occupied maximum area (77.99%)—while riparian forest is least represented (0.32%). Mixed forest has maximum number of patches among all vegetation classes. Results have shown that despite being dominant in the area, mixed bamboo forest has low patch density (0.25/100 ha). Dominance of mixed bamboo forest is attributed to large patch sizes and not to the number of patches. This study has focussed on the approach of integrating satellite forest classification and forest inventory data for studying forest landscape patterns.

We measured erodibility and mean weight diameter (MWD) of soil aggregates in different parts of a forest road. Samples of topsoil were collected from cutslope, fillslope, road surface and forest ground to assess the texture, bulk density, moisture, CaCO₃ and organic matter. Soil aggregate stability was determined by wet sieving. Soil erodibility on the road surface was 2.3 and 1.3 times higher than on the fillslope and cutslope, respectively. The forest soil had the lowest erodibility. Aggregate stability of cutslope and road surface were low and very low, respectively. There was a significant negative relationship between cutslope erodibility with CaCO₃ and sand content. Cutslope erodibility increased with increasing silt, clay and moisture content. On fillslopes, MWD increased with increasing rock fragment cover, plant cover, litter cover, organic matter and sand. There was a strong negative correlation between fillslope erodibility and organic matter, sand and MWD. There was no significant difference between erodibility of bare soil and soils beneath Rubus hyrcanus L. and Philonotis marchica (Hedw.) Brid.

Fungi are often used to induce agarwood in Aquilaria trees. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of several fungi on agarwood formation over time in young Aquilaria malaccensis (Lam.) trees. Typical changes in the length and light intensity of the resulting discoloration were observed after three and six month periods following inoculation. Wood samples were observed microscopically and classified into several light intensity groups. The discoloration length was measured longitudinally. The duration after inoculation affected the mean of discoloration length: the 6-month old sample (1.70 cm) had a wider discoloration zone when compared to the 3-month old sample (1.17 cm). When measuring the discoloration intensity, a positive relationship with time was perceived. Digital images, captured using a camera-equipped microscope, revealed that wood samples collected after six months appeared to be 1.8-times darker than after three months. We concluded that time, not the species of any of the tested fungi, had significant effect on discoloration length and intensity. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis of the 6-month old sample yielded some important agarwood compounds such as benzylacetone, anisylacetone, guaiene and palustrol. This demonstrates that the tested fungi have the ability to induce agarwood formation in nursery A. malaccensis trees.

We examined the local community incentive programs to improve traditional forest management in three forested villages in Baneh city, Kurdistan province in the northern Zagros forests of western Iran. Zagros forests cover 6.07 million ha and support rich plant and animal diversity. Changes in local community social and economic systems and the inefficiency of traditional forest management led to a critical situation in the stability of forest regeneration in recent decades. Due to a shortage of productive and arable lands and resulting unemployment and poverty, people overexploited the Zagros forests. Outside intervention in traditional forest management creates conflicts between local peoples and forest management organizations. To achieve sustainable forest management, including forest resources conservation and improvement of natural resource based livelihoods of communities, it is desirable to implement Forestry Incentive Programs (FIP) based on the important functions of forests. Detailed information on the socio-economics of communities, the effect of forests on local livelihoods, and lists of products extracted from the forest were obtained from a survey of local communities though questionnaire, interview and observation. We studied 276 households in three villages and completed 76 questionnaires by householders in the quantitative analysis. Sampling was performed by simple random sampling (SRS). The needs of rural communities, such as livestock husbandry, mainly arise from the characteristics and environmental features of villages. We identified the driving forces, pressures, status, impacts and responses (DPSIR) to design incentive programs, by DPSIR analysis and interaction analysis. Evaluation of local community benefits from forests showed that in order to improve forest management, 319 dollars per year would be needed by each family as an incentive in 2010 to prevent lopping and firewood collecting, the main causes of forest degradation.

Swat district is a biodiversity hub of Pakistan. The plant species, especially trees, in the Swat District are exposed to extinction threat from global climate change. Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) modelling of species distribution, using HADCM3 A2a global climate change scenario, predicted a considerable change in the future distribution of Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle. AUC (area under the curve) values of 0.972 and 0.983 were significant for the present and future distribution models of the species, respectively. It is clear that bioclimatic variables such as the mean temperature of the warmest quarter (bio_10) and the annual temperature range (bio_7) contribute significantly to the model and thus affect the predicted distribution and density of the species. The future model predicts that by the year 2080 population density will have decreased significantly. The highest density of the species is recorded in the eastern and western borders of the Valley in the areas of Sulatanr and Mankial. The changes in density and distribution of the species can have considerable impact, not only on the tree species itself, but on the associated subflora as well.

We identified the major non-timber forest products (NTFPs), their contributions to household incomes, and the determinants influencing engagement of households in using NTFPs in the Bonga forest area of Gimbo and Decha Districts of Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Six Kebeles (the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia) were sampled from two Districts and 150 households were randomly sampled using proportional-to-size techniques based on the number of farm households in each Kebele. Secondary data were collected from and focus group discussions were conducted with selected individuals. The farmers diversified livelihood activities such as crop and livestock production, collection of NTFPs and off-farm activities. NTFPs played a significant role in household incomes. The contribution from the major NTFPs (forest coffee, honey and spices) accounted for 47% of annual household income. The role of NTFPs was influenced by a number of factors. Variables including being native to the area (+), total land holding (+), possession of livestock (+) and access to extension (+) significantly affected forest coffee production. Age of household head (−), land holding (+) and distance of the market from the residence (−) significantly affected honey production. Size of landholding (+), distance to market (−) and distance of the forest from the residence (−) were significant variables determining the NTFP incomes derived by the households. Attention is needed in the design of policies and strategies for the well-being of households to the contribution of NTFPs to local incomes and the variables that affect the collection of NTFPs must be considered.