The analysis of the systematic transitions in the forested landscape and the study of the forest fragmentation patterns allow us to deepen our understanding of the changes in the vegetation ground cover. The importance of knowing the intricate patterns of the land usage of the upper basin of the Amazon region is widely recognized. This zone is one of the most diverse biological areas in the world, is home to large areas of mature tropical cloud forest and demonstrates high probabilities of stable climatic conditions in light of global warming. The research quantified systematic transitions through the “loss” and “gain” of the different categories of landscape during the eighteen-year study period of the Ecuadorian Amazon Region (EAR), the forest fragmentation patterns were also analyzed based on a set of indicators. Therefore, with respect to the entirety of the landscape, the results registered for the ground coverage in forested areas during the first period (1990–2000), show a decrease of 6.99% and an increase of 0.68%; and during the second period (2000–2008), show a decrease of 3.99% and an increase of 2.14%. It demonstrated that forest and agricultural areas tended to replace or be replaced by herbaceous vegetation faster than expected fortuitously. Finally, the indices of fragmentation signaled intense changes during the 1990–2000 period with a reduction during the period 2000–2008. Percentages registered in the Largest Patch Index (LPI) were between 79.58%; 52.39% and 49.99% respectively; while the Patch Density (PD) varied between 0.04; 0.06 and 0.07. This suggests the propensity of forest cover to remain intact. The results of this investigation suggest a tendency towards stability in Ecuador’s Amazon landscape. Within the framework for development and management of this area, the tendency is natural regeneration. This permits a consolidation of the conservation, reforestation, forestation and agricultural forestry plans, programs and systems for the protected areas in EAR.

We investigated the floristic composition, woody species diversity and spatial distribution of trees in a tropical wet evergreen forest in Kaptai national park in Chittagong Hill Tracks, Bangladesh. We recorded 25 families, 37 genera, 40 species and 1771 woody individuals in a 0.09 ha plot. Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae were the most speciesrich families, and Castanopsis, Ficus and Terminalia were the most species-rich genera. Bursera serrata Wall. ex Colebr. was the dominant species in terms of highest importance value (13%). Trema orientalis (L.) Bl was typically a light demanding species as it appeared in the top canopy with only one individual having the seventh highest IV, but had no regeneration. The expected maximum number of species (S _max) was 140, indicating that many species may invade the forest as the S _max is greater than the recorded total number of species. The nature of the disappearance and appearance of species in the present forest reflects instability of floristic composition. The values of Shannon’s index H′ and Pielou’s index J′ (evenness) were 3.36 bit and 0.63, respectively. These values show moderately high species diversity as compared to other subtropical forests in the tropics. In addition, a sample area of 200 m² in this forest would be sufficient for measuring the diversity indices H′ and J′, whereas the trend of J′ may indicate the rate of equality of individuals among the different species decreased with increasing area. The distribution pattern for the total stand was completely random. However, the dominant species showed aggregate distribution for small areas, but random distribution for large areas. The spatial association between species showed that the strongest positive interspecific association occurred between Streblus asper Lour. and Castanea indica Roxb. (ω = 0.51). As a whole, most species were weakly associated with each other, of which 58% species associations were completely negative. The result of cluster analysis showed that species pairs were spatially independent at all or most small clusters; stands of species from all clusters are mosaics of complete habitat and pioneer habitat. All patches in this forest community have similar habitat and regeneration niches, which could be a phenomenon for a young growth forest. Thus, the existence of habitat and regeneration niches may be an important factor in the maintenance of diversity in this forest.

The study was conducted at Zengena forest, a fragmented remnant montane forest in northwestern Ethiopia, which surrounds Lake Zengena. The purpose was to assess the species composition, diversity and the regeneration status of woody plants. A total of 27 plots of 20 m × 20 m were sampled along the line transects laid down the altitudinal gradient from the edge of the forest encompassing the lake to the edge of the lake in eight aspects. In each plot, woody species were counted and the diameter at breast height and the height of trees and shrubs were measured. A total of 50 woody species belonging to 31 families were found, of which 17 (34%) were trees, 7 (14%) trees or shrubs, 23 (46%) shrubs and 3 (6%) lianas. The overall Shannon-Wiener diversity and evenness indices of woody species were 2.74 and 0.7, respectively. Clausena anisata had the highest relative density (23.5%), Rapanea rhododendroides the highest relative frequency (6.5%) and Prunus africana the highest relative dominance (45%) and importance value index (IVI, 51.6). The total basal area and density of woody plants were 22.3 m²·ha⁻¹ and 2,202 individuals·ha⁻¹, respectively. The population structure showed variations among woody plants and revealed varied regeneration patterns of different species. The importance value index and population structure revealed that some species are threatened and need prioritization for conservation measures. The results suggest that remnant forest patches in the highlands of northern Ethiopia host several woody plant species that are almost disappearing in other areas due to deforestation.

In this study, we assessed the variability in pod, seed traits and oil content of 24 accessions of Pongamia pinnata collected from different parts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. The experiment was conducted at the Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair during 2010 to 2011. The variability studies for pod and seed traits revealed that, the accession CPT-6 collected from New Wandoor in South Andaman recorded the maximum values for eight traits viz. pod length (75.51 mm), pod width (34.62 mm), pod thickness (17.55 mm), 100 pod weight (770.33 g), seed width (21.23 mm), 100 seed weight (377.00 g), oil percentage (43.92%) and germination percentage (94.7%). However, the maximum seed length (26.46 mm) was recorded from CPT 2 and the maximum pod-seed ratio was obtained from CPT 13 and CPT 4 (2.50 and 2.44 respectively). The phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variations were also close to each other for all traits, but the 100 pod and seed weight exhibited higher phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation than the other traits. Estimates of broad sense heritability ranged from 0.30 (for seed length) to 0.95 (pod length) and genetic advance as percent of the mean ranged between 11.66% and 57.40% with seed length giving the lowest value and 100 pod weight giving the highest value. Both the phenotypic and genotypic correlation between pod length, pod width, pod thickness, 100 pod weight, seed width and 100 seed weight and between pod thickness, 100 pod weight, seed width, 100 seed weight and germination percentage were found to be strong. On the basis of non hierarchical Euclidian cluster analysis, 24 accessions were grouped into six clusters. The maximum numbers of seven accessions were included in cluster VI. The maximum intra cluster distance (10.238) shown by cluster VI and the maximum inter cluster distance (17.021) between V and III followed by III and II (15.942). Among the six clusters formed the cluster III recorded maximum oil percentage, 100 pod weight, 100 seed weight, pod length, pod thickness, pod width, seed width and germination percentage, while cluster V recorded maximum pod seed ratio and germination percentage. The present findings suggest that the crossing between accessions of cluster V and cluster III will result in a wide spectrum of variability in subsequent generations.

A microbial inoculant, known as effective microorganisms (EM), was applied to determine its efficacy on seed germination and seedling growth in the nursery of Acacia auriculiformis A Cunn. ex Benth. The seedlings were grown in a mixture of sandy soil and cow dung (3:1) and kept in polybags; EM was poured at different concentrations (0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5% and 10%). Seed germination rate and growth parameters of seedlings — shoot and root lengths, fresh and dry weights of shoots and roots, vigor, volume, and quality indices and sturdiness — were measured. The nodulation status influenced by EM was also observed, along with the measurement of pigment contents in leaves. The highest germination rate (72%) was observed in 2% EM solution while the lowest (55%) was found in control treatment. The highest shoot and root lengths (30.6 cm and 31.2 cm respectively) were recorded in 2% EM and were significantly (p <0.05) different from control. Both fresh and dry weights of shoots were maximum (8.66 g and 2.99 g respectively) in 2% EM, whereas both fresh and dry weights of root were maximum (2.56 g and 1.23 g respectively) in 5% EM solution. Although the highest vigor index, volume index, and sturdiness (4450, 628 and 67.5 respectively) were found in 2% EM, the highest quality index (0.455) was found in 5% EM solution. The nodule number was higher at a very low (0.5%) concentration of EM but it normally decreased with the increase of concentration. The contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid were maximum (43.26 mg·L⁻¹, 13.56 mg·L⁻¹and 17.99 mg·L⁻¹ respectively) in 2% EM. Therefore, low concentration of EM (up to 2%) can be recommended for getting maximum seed germination and seedling development of A. auriculiformis in the nursery.

We studied variations in tree biomass and carbon sequestration rates of Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii. Sarg.) forest in three categories of forest disturbance, protected, moderately disturbed, and highly disturbed. In the first year, total biomass was 14.7 t·ha⁻¹ in highly disturbed site, 94.46 t·ha⁻¹ in moderately disturbed forest, and 112.0 t·ha⁻¹ in protected forest. The soil organic carbon in the top 20 cm of soil ranged from 0.63 to 1.2%. The total rate of carbon sequestration was 0.60 (t/ha)·a⁻¹ on the highly disturbed site, 1.03 (t/ha)·a⁻¹ on the moderately disturbed site, and 4.3 (t/ha)·a⁻¹ on the protected site.

This investigation was conducted to determine the feasibility of using a two-component polyurethane (PUR) adhesive, with special waterproof properties, in constructing wooden structures. We designed and conducted tests to compare the shear strength and adhesion performance of PUR with polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive on block-shear specimens constructed of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis L.), fir (Abies alba Mill.), poplar (Populus deltoides Bartr.), white oak (Quercus alba L.), sycamore (Platanus orientalis L.) and white walnut (Juglans cinerea L.). The values of the percentage of wood failure were also determined in specimens constructed with each adhesive. The highest shear strength values of both adhesives were obtained in specimens constructed of beech, while the lowest shear strength values were obtained in fir and poplar specimens. Average shear strength of the PUR adhesive was 16.5% higher than that of the PVAc adhesive. Specimens constructed of fir, poplar and sycamore were characterised by the highest percentages of wood failure, whereas the lowest average percentages of wood failure were obtained in beech and oak specimens. With the exception of oak specimens, there was no statistically significant difference between percentage of wood failure among the PUR and PVAc adhesives. Generally, the PUR adhesive showed an acceptable adhesion performance on wood materials used in our study.