Understanding the genetic diversity and environmental stability of fruit quality is essential for the selection of elite kiwifruit germplasm and the development of climate-adaptive cultivars. In this study, 47 kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) accessions were evaluated over four consecutive years (2021–2024) to characterize fruit-quality diversity and stability and to identify meteorological factors associated with quality variation. 8 quality traits—fruit weight (FW), dry matter (DM), soluble solids content of ripe fruit (SSC_R), sugar, titratable acidity (TA), SSC_R/TA and Sugar/TA ratios, and vitamin C (Vc)—were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation, multivariate analysis, and stability coefficients. Associations between quality traits and meteorological factors during key developmental windows were evaluated using Spearman’s rank correlation analysis. The results revealed substantial phenotypic diversity: Vc exhibited the greatest variation (CV = 100.75%), whereas DM was the most stable trait (CV = 8.87%), and a strong predictor of sweetness of ripe fruit (R2 = 0.66 with SSC_R). Genetic background significantly influenced trait expression, with A. eriantha hybrids showing exceptionally high levels of Vc, whereas A. rufa hybrids exhibiting small fruit size and low levels of Vc. Multivariate analysis classified the 47 accessions into 4 clades with distinct quality profiles. Stability analysis indicated that environmental variation among years was the primary driver of total phenotypic fluctuation, while certain accessions (e.g., S1, S9, S16, S18, and S43) exhibited both high quality and superior stability. Meteorological conditions during specific developmental windows were significantly associated with several quality traits. DM was positively associated with maximum temperature, diurnal temperature range, and temperature variability (|r| ≈ 0.38–0.41), whereas TA and the sugar–acid ratio were associated with early-season heat accumulation, temperature variability, and preharvest rainfall (|r| ≈ 0.30–0.47). These associations were stage dependent, and no single meteorological factor consistently explained fruit-quality variation. Overall, this study reveals substantial genetic diversity in kiwifruit fruit quality, identifies germplasm combining high quality with cross-year stability, and demonstrates the stage-specific associations of meteorological conditions with key quality traits, providing valuable resources for breeding high-quality, broadly adaptable cultivars and developing climate-adaptive orchard management strategies.
| [1] |
Asadi M, Ghasemnezhad M, Olfati J, Bakhshipour A, Mirjalili MH, Atak A. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations. Open Agric, 2024, 920220283
|
| [2] |
Bakoğlu N, Tuna Gunes N, Akbulut M. Some physical and chemical changes in kiwifruit during two different growth and development seasons. Applied Fruit Science, 2024, 66: 1493-1503.
|
| [3] |
Burdon J, McLeod D, Lallu N, Gamble J, Petley M, Gunson A. Consumer evaluation of “Hayward” kiwifruit of different at-harvest dry matter contents. Postharvest Biol Technol, 2004, 34: 245-255.
|
| [4] |
Chen L, Liu Y, Gao H, Cao J, Qian J, Zheng K, et al.A model for selecting kiwifruit (Actinidia eriantha) germplasm resources with excellent fruit quality. Foods, 2024, 134014
|
| [5] |
Ferguson AR. The need for characterisation and evaluation of germplasm: kiwifruit as an example. Euphytica, 2007, 154: 371-382.
|
| [6] |
Ferguson AR, Huang HJanick J. Genetic resources of kiwifruit: domestication and breeding. Horticultural reviews, 2007, Hoboken: Wiley, 1-121.
|
| [7] |
Gao Z, Zhang D, Mao J, Zhu Y, Yao D, Lin M, et al.Optimizing kiwifruit cultivar selection through integrated quality evaluation: An entropy weighted-analytic hierarchy process approach for balancing biochemical and sensory attributes. Sci Hortic2026, 357114618
|
| [8] |
Harker F, Carr B, Lenjo M, MacRae E, Wismer W, Marsh K, et al.Consumer liking for kiwifruit flavour: A meta-analysis of five studies on fruit quality. Food Qual Prefer, 2009, 20: 30-41.
|
| [9] |
He Y, Li Z, Liao G, Chen L, Zhong M, Huang C, et al.Variation in fruit quality within wild Actinidia eriantha germplasm. N Z J Crop Hortic Sci, 2020, 48: 153-163.
|
| [10] |
Huang H, Wang Y, Zhang Z, Jiang Z, Wang S. Actinidia germplasm resources and kiwifruit industry in China. HortScience, 2004, 39: 1165-1172.
|
| [11] |
Jaeger SR, Harker R, Triggs CM, Gunson A, Campbell RL, Jackman R, et al.Determining consumer purchase intentions: the importance of dry matter, size, and price of kiwifruit. J Food Sci, 2011, 76: S177-S184.
|
| [12] |
Li D, Xie X, Liu X, Cheng C, Guo W, Zhong C, et al.Effects of short-term high temperature on gas exchange in kiwifruits (Actinidia spp.). Biology (Basel), 2022, 111686
|
| [13] |
Li D, Min Y, Cheng C, Liu X, Xie X, Chalchisa G, et al.The diversity and disparity of mineral elements in global kiwifruits. Food Res Int, 2025, 203115844
|
| [14] |
Lv Z, He Y, Liu Q, Huang C, Jia D, Xu X. Diversity analysis of kiwifruit germplasm resources and quality resources selection based on fruit characters in the south of Jiangxi province. Eur J Hortic Sci. 2022;87. https://doi.org/10.17660/eJHS.2022/008.
|
| [15] |
Medda S, Fadda A, Mulas M. Influence of climate change on metabolism and biological characteristics in perennial woody fruit crops in the Mediterranean environment. Horticulturae, 2022, 8273
|
| [16] |
Qi X, Guo D, Wang R, Zhong Y, Fang J. Development status and suggestions on Chinese kiwifruit industry. J Fruit Sci. 2020;37:754–63. https://doi.org/10.13925/j.cnki.gsxb.20190503.
|
| [17] |
Qi X, Wang R, Zhang M, Lin M, Li Y, Sun L. Research progress in kiwifruit breeding. J Fruit Sci. 2024;41:2160–72. https://doi.org/10.13925/j.cnki.gsxb.20240601.
|
| [18] |
Rajan P, Natraj P, Kim M, Lee M, Jang YJ, Lee YJ, et al.Climate change impacts on and response strategies for kiwifruit production: a comprehensive review. Plants, 2024, 132354
|
| [19] |
Richardson A, Marsh K, Boldingh H, Pickering A, Bulley S, Frearson N, et al.High growing temperatures reduce fruit carbohydrate and vitamin C in kiwifruit. Plant Cell Environ, 2004, 27: 423-435.
|
| [20] |
Richardson DP, Ansell J, Drummond LN. The nutritional and health attributes of kiwifruit: A review. Eur J Nutr, 2018, 57: 2659-2676.
|
| [21] |
Shen SY, Wang ZQ, Zhang Q, Yang J, Han F, Zhong CH, et al. Analysis of fruit quality and sensory evaluation of 36 kiwifruit (Actinidia) germplasm accessions. Plant Sci J. 2023;41:540–51. https://doi.org/10.11913/PSJ.2095-0837.22300.
|
| [22] |
Snelgar WP, Hall AJ, Ferguson AR, Blattmann P. Temperature influences growth and maturation of fruit on ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit vines. Funct Plant Biol, 2005, 32: 631-642.
|
| [23] |
Tait A, Paul V, Sood A, Mowat A. Potential impact of climate change on Hayward kiwifruit production viability in New Zealand. N Z J Crop Hortic Sci, 2018, 46: 175-197.
|
| [24] |
Titeli VS, Michailidis M, Tanou G, Molassiotis A. Physiological and metabolic traits linked to kiwifruit quality. Horticulturae, 2023, 9915
|
| [25] |
Wang Y, Dong J, Yuan X, Zheng H, Zhong C, Zhang Q. Cracking the kiwifruit code: how cultivar and origin co-create premium quality and consumer appeal. Future Foods, 2025, 11100651
|
| [26] |
Wang D, Liang J, Huang T, Zhang L, Li R, Yang S, et al. Fresh food quality evaluation of kiwifruit based on principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Sci Technol Food Ind. 2021;42:1–8. https://doi.org/10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2020050240.
|
| [27] |
Woodward TJ, Clearwater MJ. Spatial variation in ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit dry matter content within a growing region across seasons. N Z J Crop Hortic Sci, 2011, 39: 241-249.
|
| [28] |
Yuan X, Zheng H, Fan J, Liu F, Li J, Zhong C, et al.Comparative study on physicochemical and nutritional qualities of kiwifruit varieties. Foods, 2023, 12108
|
| [29] |
Zhang H, Zhao Q, Lan T, Geng T, Gao C, Yuan Q, et al.Comparative analysis of physicochemical characteristics, nutritional and functional components and antioxidant capacity of fifteen kiwifruit (Actinidia) cultivars—comparative analysis of fifteen kiwifruit (Actinidia) cultivars. Foods, 2020, 91267
|
| [30] |
Zhang F, Liu P, Zhou X, Yan M, Jia Y, Ding X, et al.Quality analysis of different kiwifruit cultivars and their relationship with soil elements. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr, 2025, 25: 4491-4502.
|
| [31] |
Zheng L, Xia W, Qiu S, Liu Z, Yang S, Xu S, et al. Genetic analysis of fruit traits and bacterial canker resistance in hybrid offspring of Actinidia rufa × Actinidia chinensis. J Fruit Sci. 2025;42:947–56. https://doi.org/10.13925/j.cnki.gsxb.20240675.
|
| [32] |
Zhong C, Huang W, Wang Z, Li L, Li D, Zhang Q, et al.The breeding progress and development status of the kiwifruit industry in China. Acta Hortic, 2022, 1332: 445-454.
|
Funding
China Agriculture Research System(CARS-26)
Technological Innovation Program of Hubei Province(2024BBB020)
Hubei Provincial International Science and Technology Cooperation Project(2025EHA056)
Rights & permissions
The Author(s)
PDF
