In his thinking on the history of Being, Martin Heidegger proposed the concepts of the first commencement and the other commencement, which correspond to the first history of Being and the other history of Being, as well as the first science and the other science. The first science refers to modern science that emerged from Western metaphysics at the completion of the first history of Being. The other science is one that flourishes in the other history of Being, and is distinct from modern science, but can encompass modern science. The history of Being reflected in Chinese tradition is different from the first history of Being, and therefore, it is impossible for modern science to emerge. However, the commencement of Chinese tradition is quite similar to the other commencement; the history of Being it initiated is also quite similar to the other history of Being, and consequently, the other science could thrive within the Chinese tradition. Ancient Chinese science is a primitive form of the other science. The transition from the first history of Being to the other history of Being has begun, and China can provide a more suitable environment for the other science.
Communication in science and culture between China and the West should go further into thinking patterns and the logic of language. This article reveals that Chinese image (xiang) thinking is based on “extracting the image and transcending the form.” Different from the abstract concept and formal logic of Western rational thinking, the foundations and laws of this approach are “name-image” and “image-quantity logic.” This article raises and explains two major derivation laws of “image-quantity logic”: analogical reasoning and Taiji reasoning, the observing regulations of which are the law of similarity (or the law of growth), the law of time sequencing, and the law of Taiji (or the law of evolution). The procedural algorithm system of traditional Chinese mathematics follows the tradition of the image-quantity algorithm. The image-quantity logic can also be called ancient Chinese algorithm logic and generation logic. They are similar to modern computer mathematics and systems science.
In early China, the concept of “number” was often linked with cosmology and the view of time and space, embodying profound philosophical implications. The Qin bamboo-slip text “Lu Jiuci Asks Chen Qi about Numbers” posits that “all things under Heaven involve numbers,” substantiating the perspective that “all things have numbers.” This idea resonates with the notion that “the number is the origin of all things,” illustrating the universality of numbers. Both “Harmony and Measurements” of Records of the Historian and “Treatise on the Pitch-Pipes and Calendar” of History of the Former Han recognize the philosophical existence of “number.” The statement “Heaven is three and Earth is four” (or “Yang is three and Yin is four”) represents the mathematical principles of the Theory of Canopy-Heaven, rooted in the concept that “the circle is derived from the square” as articulated in Mathematical Classic of the Zhou Gnomon. The mathematical principles of the Theory of Sphere-Heaven are demonstrated through the division of a day into 81 sections inspired by the capacity of a standard Huangzhong pitch pipe, which is one yue, approximately 810 fen, and by the centrality of the numbers five and six. The ancients sought to unify all mathematical principles, identifying the “numbers of Heaven and Earth” as the foundation of numbers. Early Chinese cosmology highlighted the philosophical concept of “number,” as exemplified in notions such as “Dao gives birth to the One” and “The One gives birth to the Two,” while underscoring the profound implications of the numeral “one.”
Leveraging the philosophical foundation of the Intentology or intention noumenon theory (yibenlun), this paper explores the commonality and correlation between traditional Chinese Yin-Yang interaction thinking and quantum thinking and summarizes their significance in philosophy and interdisciplinary research. Specifically, the wave-particle duality is similar to the interaction of Yin and Yang between consciousness and the body; the observer effect aligns with the idea of subject-object unity in the Intentological epistemology; and quantum entanglement parallels the interaction of Yin and Yang between humanity and the universe in the intention noumenon perception theory, reflecting integrity and non-locality. These similarities suggest that both Yin-Yang interaction thinking and quantum thinking emphasize the dynamism, integrity, and uncertainty of the world, breaking through the traditional binary opposition concept. Scholars of the Intentological are dedicated to facilitating the integration of Yin-Yang interaction thinking with quantum thinking. This integration not only offers a novel perspective for exploring the connections between humanity and nature and the world but also introduces innovative approaches for interdisciplinary research in domains such as physics, psychology, and medicine, contributing to the multidimensional progression of contemporary philosophy.
During the pre-Qin period, the Mohists uniquely devoted considerable attention to science, achieving outstanding results in fields such as geometry, mechanics, and optics. Science and natural philosophy are deeply interconnected, and the scientific achievements of the Mohists are fundamentally grounded in their natural philosophy. From an epistemological standpoint, the Mohists insisted that the world is knowable, that knowledge is a reflection of objective things, and that cognition is a process progressing from perceptual knowledge to rational understanding. Methodologically, they developed systematic approaches to classification, conceptual definition, and logical reasoning, applying these tools to the investigation of the natural world and thereby pioneering a unique path to scientific knowledge. Overall, Mohism represents what can be termed a “physical type” of epistemology and methodology—one that insists on a subject-object dichotomy, explains nature through naturalistic principles, and shares key similarities with Western natural philosophy.
The Confucianism, Daoism, and Mohism of the Pre-Qin period all contributed to the formation of the ancient Chinese craftsmanship philosophy. The core concept of the Confucian craftsmanship philosophy is “utility,” which refers to the excellence of artifacts. The excellence of artifacts is twofold: superior functional performance and adherence to ritual propriety. The former of these two aspects of utility relates to productive efficacy, serving as a marker of technological advancement, while the latter pertains to political order, reflecting the institutional framework of the state. It is for this reason that craftsmanship occupies a revered status within Confucian culture. The core concept of the Daoist craftsmanship philosophy is “subtlety,” which represents the aesthetic manifestation of the Dao. Artisanal praxis takes Dao as its root, technique as its usage, and artistry as its aesthetic joy, hence harmonizing humanity and Heaven, and elevating such harmony to the celestial consonance of Heaven with itself. This celestial consonance constitutes ultimate attunement with Dao, from which inevitably emerges the numinous subtlety. The core concept of Mohism craftsmanship philosophy is “ingenuity.” Ingenuity arises from laws, which derive from nature. Thus, nature possesses great ingenuity. The great ingenuity in nature is unattainable by humans, but humans can strive towards the utmost, which Mozi designated as “ultimate ingenuity.” Ultimate ingenuity benefits not the rulers but the people and the world. The three doctrines share a fundamental coherence in spirit and ultimate purpose, with each having its respective emphasis. The three collectively construct the Chinese craftsmanship philosophy.
The intellectual undercurrent of “science, technology (S&T), and philosophy” that formed in modern China is an organic component of the history of the philosophy of science and technology (PST) and a valuable resource for the discipline’s renewal. Research on S&T and philosophy encompasses four dimensions: the history of science and philosophy, philosophy about science, the philosophy of science, and scientific philosophy. Concurrently, inquiries into the relationship among S&T, the humanities, and society have addressed the scientific spirit and culture, the new humanism, the sociology of science, and S&T. Reflections on three derivative topics—the problem-domain of the PST, the cluster of S&T humanities disciplines, and the notion of an S&T-era community—also offer crucial insights. The evolution from “S&T and philosophy” to the formal PST represented a chain reaction in academic research and disciplinary development, driven by the growing dominance of scientific culture and the mutual challenges between S&T and the humanities in the modern era. Looking forward, the PST should seek to establish a new disciplinary position “between S&T and the humanities.” It should cultivate its innate scientific-humanistic character, emulate past scholars to integrate Chinese and Western thought, address problems directly, transcend disciplinary boundaries, and grasp the spirit of the age by integrating the scientific and humanistic spirits. In doing so, it can achieve paradigmatic innovation while contributing to the development of China’s independent knowledge system for Chinese philosophy.