A Review of Variational Quantum Algorithms: Insights into Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing

Abstract

Variational quantum algorithms (VQAs) have established themselves as a central computational paradigm in the Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) era. By coupling parameterized quantum circuits with classical optimization, they operate effectively under strict hardware limitations. However, as quantum architectures transition toward early fault-tolerant (EFT) and ultimate faulttolerant (FT) regimes, the foundational principles and long-term viability of VQAs require systematic reassessment. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of VQAs and their progression toward the FT regime. We deconstruct the core algorithmic framework by examining ansatz design and classical optimization strategies, including cost function formulation, gradient computation, and optimizer selection. Concurrently, we evaluate critical training bottlenecks, notably barren plateaus (BPs), alongside established mitigation strategies. The discussion then explores the EFT phase, detailing how the integration of quantum error mitigation (QEM) and partial error correction can sustain algorithmic performance. Addressing the FT phase, we analyze the inherent challenges confronting current hybrid VQA models. Furthermore, we synthesize recent VQA applications across diverse domains, including many-body physics, quantum chemistry, machine learning, and mathematical optimization. Ultimately, this review outlines a theoretical roadmap for adapting quantum algorithms to future hardware generations, elucidating how variational principles can be systematically refined to maintain their relevance and efficiency within an error-corrected computational environment.

Keywords

variational quantum algorithm / fault-tolerant quantum computing / Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) era / early fault-tolerant quantum computing

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Higher Education Press 2026

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