A review of cement-based piezoelectric composites: from traditional connectivity to triply periodic minimal surface designs

Abstract

Cement-based piezoelectric composites (CPCs) have attracted growing interest in structural health monitoring and smart infrastructure due to their inherent compatibility with concrete and electromechanical conversion capability. This review systematically examines the development of CPCs, from conventional connectivity designs (0-3, 1-3, 2-2, and 3-3 types) towards emerging architectures based on triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMSs). The paper first outlines key performance parameters of CPCs, followed by a critical analysis of fabrication methods, structural characteristics, and performance limitations of traditional configurations. It then highlights the design concept, geometric advantages, and application potential of TPMS-based CPCs, emphasizing their bi-continuous topology and programmable functionality. The selection and modification strategies for lead-based and lead-free piezoelectric materials are discussed in the context of composite compatibility. Representative applications in civil engineering health monitoring, intelligent pavements, and energy harvesting are summarized. Finally, key challenges — such as poling efficiency, interface durability, and scalable manufacturing — are identified, and future research directions, including multiscale design, multi-physics modeling, and sustainable manufacturing, are outlined.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

cement-based piezoelectric composite / triply periodic minimal surface / structural health monitoring / connectivity design

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