Research and development of nanocrystalline W/W-based materials: novel preparation approaches, formation mechanisms, and unprecedented excellent properties

Abstract

Tungsten (W) has become the most promising plasma-facing material (PFM) in fusion reactor, and W still faces performance degradation caused by low-temperature brittleness, low recrystallization temperature, neutron irradiation effects, and plasma irradiation effects. The modification of W/W-based materials in terms of microstructure manipulation is needed, and such techniques to improve the performance of materials are the topics of hot research. Researchers have found that refining the grain can significantly improve the strength and the irradiation resistance of W/W-based materials. In this paper, novel approaches and technique routes, including the “bottom-up” powder metallurgy method and “top-down” severe plastic deformation method, are introduced to the fabrication of nanocrystalline W/W-based materials. The formation mechanisms of nanocrystalline W/W-based materials were revealed, and the nanostructure stabilization mechanisms were introduced. The mechanical properties of nanocrystalline W/W-based materials were tested, and the irradiation behaviors and performances were studied. The mechanisms of their high mechanical properties and excellent irradiation-damage resistance were illustrated. This article may provide an experimental and theoretical basis for the design and development of high-performance novel nanocrystalline W/W-based materials.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

nanocrystalline tungsten / grain boundary / secondary phase doping / mechanical property / irradiation behavior

References

[1] Sauthoff N R U S . Contributions to ITER.Fusion Engineering and Design, 2006, 81: 87–92

[2] Klein F, Litnovsky A, Tan X, . Smart alloys as armor material for DEMO: overview of properties and joining to structural materials.Fusion Engineering and Design, 2021, 166: 112272

[3] Claessens M. ITER: The Giant Fusion Reactor — Bringing a Sun to Earth. Springer, 2019

[4] Cui S, Zhang D, Lang Y, . A new method for improving the tritium breeding and releasing performance of China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor phase II helium-cooled ceramic breeder blanket.International Journal of Energy Research, 2020, 44: 5977–5989

[5] Conte M, Aktaa J . Manufacturing influences on microstructure and fracture mechanical properties of polycrystalline tungsten.Nuclear Materials and Energy, 2019, 21: 100591

[6] Philipps V . Tungsten as material for plasma-facing components in fusion devices.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2011, 415: S2–S9

[7] Hasegawa A, Fukuda M, Yabuuchi K, . Neutron irradiation effects on the microstructural development of tungsten and tungsten alloys.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2016, 471: 175–183

[8] Zinkle S J, Snead L L . Designing radiation resistance in materials for fusion energy.Annual Review of Materials Research, 2014, 44: 241–267

[9] Knaster J, Moeslang A, Muroga T . Materials research for fusion.Nature Physics, 2016, 12: 424–434

[10] Li Y G, Zheng Q R, Wei L M, . A review of surface damage/microstructures and their effects on hydrogen/helium retention in tungsten.Tungsten, 2020, 2: 34–71

[11] Xiao S, Ma Y, Tian L, . Decrease of blistering on Helium irradiated tungsten surface via transversal release of helium from the grooved surfaces.Nuclear Materials and Energy, 2020, 23: 100746

[12] Meyer F W, Han L, Hijazi H, . Energy dependence of He-ion-induced tungsten nanofuzz formation at non-normal incidence angles.Nuclear Materials and Energy, 2017, 12: 366–371

[13] Dasgupta D, Kolasinski R D, Friddle R W, . On the origin of ‘fuzz’ formation in plasma-facing materials.Nuclear Fusion, 2019, 59: 086057

[14] Yuan Y, Wang T, Kreter A, . Influence of neon seeding on the deuterium retention and surface modification of ITER-like forged tungsten.Nuclear Fusion, 2020, 61: 016007

[15] Yan Q Z, Zhang X F, Zhou Z J, . Status of R&D on plasma facing materials in China.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2013, 442: S190–S197

[16] Sun Z, Diallo A, Maingi R, . Suppression of edge localized modes with real-time boron injection using the tungsten divertor in EAST.Nuclear Fusion, 2021, 61: 014002

[17] Giannattasio A, Yao Z, Tarleton E, . Brittle–ductile transitions in polycrystalline tungsten.Philosophical Magazine, 2010, 90(30): 3947–3959

[18] Roth J, Schmid K . Hydrogen in tungsten as plasma-facing material.Physica Scripta, 2011, T145: 014031

[19] Alimov V K, Roth J . Hydrogen isotope retention in plasmafacing materials: review of recent experimental results.Physica Scripta, 2007, T128: 6

[20] Meyers M A, Mishra A, Benson D J . Mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials.Progress in Materials Science, 2006, 51: 427–556

[21] Zhao Y H, Topping T, Bingert J F, . High tensile ductility and strength in bulk nanostructured nickel.Advanced Materials, 2008, 20: 3028–3033

[22] Zhou Q, Zhao J, Xie J Y, . Grain size dependent strain rate sensitivity in nanocrystalline body-centered cubic metal thin films.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2014, 608: 184–189

[23] Grimes R W, Konings R J M, Edwards L . Greater tolerance for nuclear materials.Nature Materials, 2008, 7(9): 683–685

[24] Ackland G . Controlling radiation damage.Science, 2010, 327: 1587–1588

[25] Li X, Liu W, Xu Y C, . An energetic and kinetic perspective of the grain boundary role in healing radiation damage in tungsten.Nuclear Fusion, 2013, 53: 123014

[26] Kecskes L, Cho K, Dowding R, . Grain size engineering of bcc refractory metals: top-down and bottom-up-application to tungsten.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2007, 467: 33–43

[27] Hao T, Fan Z, Zhao S, . Microstructures and properties of ultrafine-grained tungsten produced by equal-channel angular pressing at low temperatures.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2013, 433: 351–356

[28] Ameyama K, Oda E, Fujiwara H . Superplasticity and high temperature deformation behaviour in nano grain tungsten compacts.Materialwissenschaft and Werkstofftechnik, 2008, 39(4–5): 336–339

[29] Shkodich N, Spasova M, Farle M, . Structural evolution and magnetic properties of high-entropy CuCrFeTiNi alloys prepared by high-energy ball milling and spark plasma sintering.Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2020, 816: 152611

[30] Oda E, Fujiwara H, Ameyama K . Nano grain formation in tungsten by severe plastic deformation-mechanical milling process.Materials Transactions, 2008, 49: 54–57

[31] Xia M, Yan Q Z, Xu L, . Bulk tungsten with uniformly dispersed La₂O₃ nanoparticles sintered from co-precipitated La₂O₃/W nanoparticles.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2013, 434: 85–89

[32] Xia M, Yan Q, Xu L, . Synthesis of TiC/W core–shell nanoparticles by precipitate-coating process.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2012, 430: 216–220

[33] Xu L, Yan Q, Xia M, . Preparation of La₂O₃ doped ultra-fine W powders by hydrothermal-hydrogen reduction process.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2013, 36: 238–242

[34] Dias M, Guerreiro F, Correia J B, . Consolidation of W‒Ta composites: hot isostatic pressing and spark and pulse plasma sintering.Fusion Engineering and Design, 2015, 98–99: 1950–1955

[35] Kim H G, Kim K T . Densification behavior of tungsten-fiber-reinforced copper powder compacts under hot isostatic pressing.International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2000, 42: 1339–1356

[36] Weber T, Zhou Z, Qu D, . Resistance sintering under ultra high pressure of tungsten/EUROFER97 composites.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2011, 414: 19–22

[37] Qu D, Zhou Z, Tan J, . Characterization of W/Fe functionally graded materials manufactured by resistance sintering under ultra-high pressure.Fusion Engineering and Design, 2015, 91: 21–24

[38] Choi J, Sung H M, Roh K B, . Fabrication of sintered tungsten by spark plasma sintering and investigation of thermal stability.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2017, 69: 164–169

[39] Zhou Y F, Zhao Z Y, Tan X Y, . Densification and microstructure evolution of W‒TiC‒Y₂O₃ during spark plasma sintering.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2019, 79: 95–101

[40] Fan Z S, Xiang D P, Pan Y L, . Effect of two-time spark plasma sintering on microstructure and mechanical properties of W‒6Ni‒4Mn alloy.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2019, 745: 300–306

[41] Huang L, Jiang L, Topping T D, . In situ oxide dispersion strengthened tungsten alloys with high compressive strength and high strain-to-failure.Acta Materialia, 2017, 122: 19–31

[42] Yar M A, Wahlberg S, Bergqvist H, . Spark plasma sintering of tungsten–yttrium oxide composites from chemically synthesized nanopowders and microstructural characterization.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2011, 412: 227–232

[43] Liu R, Xie Z M, Fang Q F, . Nanostructured yttria dispersion-strengthened tungsten synthesized by sol-gel method.Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016, 657: 73–80

[44] Prabhu G, Chakraborty A, Sarma B . Microwave sintering of tungsten.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2009, 27: 545–548

[45] Prabhu G, Kumar N A, Sankaranarayana M, . Tensile and impact properties of microwave sintered tungsten heavy alloys.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2014, 607: 63–70

[46] Ma Y, Zhang J, Liu W, . Microstructure and dynamic mechanical properties of tungsten-based alloys in the form of extruded rods via microwave heating.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2014, 42: 71–76

[47] Krywopusk N M, Kecskes L J, Weihs T P . The effect of strain rate on the microstructural evolution of pure Mg during ECAE.Materials Characterization, 2021, 178: 111209

[48] Valiev R Z, Korznikov A V, Mulyukov R R . Structure and properties of ultrafine-grained materials produced by severe plastic deformation.Materials Science and Engineering A, 1993, 168: 141–148

[49] As A, Mwv A, Bma B, . Tube equal channel angular extrusion (tECAE) of Mg‒3Al‒1Zn alloy.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2021, 814: 141236

[50] Edalati K, Toh S, Watanabe M, . In situ production of bulk intermetallic-based nanocomposites and nanostructured intermetallics by high-pressure torsion.Scripta Materialia, 2012, 66: 386–389

[51] Yan B, Estrin Y, Mazilkin A, . Quantifying solid-state mechanical mixing by high-pressure torsion.Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, 878: 160419

[52] Zhou L, Liu G, Ma X L, . Strain-induced refinement in a steel with spheroidal cementite subjected to surface mechanical attrition treatment.Acta Materialia, 2008, 56: 78–87

[53] Wu X L, Tao N R, Wei Q M, . Microstructural evolution and formation of nanocrystalline intermetallic compound during surface mechanical attrition treatment of cobalt.Acta Materialia, 2007, 55: 5768–5779

[54] Lu K, Lu J . Nanostructured surface layer on metallic materials induced by surface mechanical attrition treatment.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2004, 375–377: 38–45

[55] Tsuji N, Saito Y, Utsunomiya H, . Ultra-fine grained bulk steel produced by accumulative roll-bonding (ARB).Scripta Materialia, 1999, 40(7): 795–800

[56] Tsuji N, Ito Y, Saito Y, . Strength and ductility of ultrafine grained aluminum and iron produced by ARB and annealing.Scripta Materialia, 2002, 47(12): 893–899

[57] Lang S, Yan Q, Wang Y, . Preparation and microstructure characterization of W‒0.1 wt.% TiC alloy via chemical method.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2016, 55: 33–38

[58] Zhang X, Wu X, Hou C . First-principles calculations on interface stability and migration of H and He in W‒ZrC interfaces.Applied Surface Science, 2020, 499: 143995

[59] Xie Z M, Liu R, Miao S, . High thermal shock resistance of the hot rolled and swaged bulk W‒ZrC alloys.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2016, 469: 209–216

[60] Tan X Y, Luo L M, Lu Z L, . Development of tungsten as plasma-facing materials by doping tantalum carbide nanoparticles.Powder Technology, 2015, 269: 437–442

[61] Miao S, Xie Z M, Yang X D, . Effect of hot rolling and annealing on the mechanical properties and thermal conductivity of W‒0.5 wt.% TaC alloys.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2016, 56: 8–17

[62] Zhang X, Yan Q, Lang S, . Evolution of hot rolling texture in pure tungsten and lanthanum oxide doped tungsten with various reductions.Materials & Design, 2016, 109: 443–455

[63] Xie Z M, Liu R, Zhang T, . Achieving high strength/ductility in bulk W‒Zr‒Y₂O₃ alloy plate with hybrid microstructure.Materials & Design, 2016, 107: 144–152

[64] El-Atwania O, Quach D V, Efe M, . Multimodal grain size distribution and high hardness in fine grained tungsten fabricated by spark plasma sintering.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2011, 528(18): 5670–5677

[65] Wang S, Sun C, Guo W, . Modifying the properties of tungsten based plasma facing materials with single-wall carbon nanotubes.Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 2013, 29: 919–922

[66] Zhang L H, Jiang Y, Fang Q F, . Toughness and microstructure of tungsten fibre net-reinforced tungsten composite produced by spark plasma sintering.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2016, 659: 29–36

[67] Fu T, Cui K, Zhang Y, . Oxidation protection of tungsten alloys for nuclear fusion applications: a comprehensive review.Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, 884: 161057

[68] Fu T, Shen F, Zhang Y, . Oxidation protection of high-temperature coatings on the surface of Mo-based alloys — a review.Coatings, 2022, 12(2): 141

[69] Zhang Y, Fu T, Yu L, . Anti-corrosion coatings for protecting Nb-based alloys exposed to oxidation environments: a review.Metals and Materials International, 2023, 29: 1–17

[70] Shen F, Zhang Y, Yu L, . Microstructure and oxidation behavior of Nb‒Si-based alloys for ultrahigh temperature applications: a comprehensive review.Coatings, 2021, 11(11): 1373

[71] Chookajorn T, Heather A, Murdoch C, . Design of stable nanocrystalline alloys.Science, 2012, 337: 951–954

[72] Zhang Y, Yu L, Fu T, . Microstructure evolution and growth mechanism of Si‒MoSi₂ composite coatings on TZM (Mo‒0.5Ti‒0.1Zr‒0.02C) alloy.Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, 894(15): 162403

[73] Zhang Y, Fu T, Yu L, . Improving oxidation resistance of TZM alloy by deposited Si‒MoSi₂ composite coating with high silicon concentration.Ceramics International, 2022, 48(14): 20895–20904

[74] Zhang Y, Laiho Yu, Tao F, . Microstructure and oxidation resistance of Si‒MoSi₂ ceramic coating on TZM (Mo‒0.5Ti‒0.1Zr‒0.02C) alloy at 1500 °C.Surface and Coatings Technology, 2022, 431(15): 128037

[75] Wu Z M, Liang Y X, Fan Y, . The ball to powder ratio (BPR) dependent morphology and microstructure of tungsten powder refined by ball milling.Powder Technology, 2018, 339: 256–263

[76] Liu G, Zhang G, Jiang F, . Nanostructured high-strength molybdenum alloys with unprecedented tensile ductility.Nature Materials, 2013, 12: 344–350

[77] Wu Z M, Zhang J, Zhang J, . Nanocrystalline W-based alloys with ultrahigh hardness and exceptional irradiation tolerance.Nuclear Fusion, 2019, 59(10): 106050

[78] Calvo A, García-Rosales C, Koch F, . Manufacturing and testing of self-passivating tungsten alloys of different composition.Nuclear Materials and Energy, 2016, 9: 422–429

[79] Jung Y G, Ha C G, Shin J H, . Fabrication of functionally graded ZrO₂/NiCrAlY composites by plasma activated sintering using tape casting and its thermal barrier property.Materials Science and Engineering A, 2002, 323(1–2): 110–118

[80] Tokita M . Development of large size ceramic/metal bulls FGM fabricated by spark plasma sintering.Materials Science and Engineering, 2002, B90: 34–37

[81] Wang R, Xie Z M, Wang Y K, . Fabrication and characterization of nanocrystalline ODS-W via a dissolution precipitation process.International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2019, 80: 104–113

[82] Wei Q, Zhang H T, Schuster B E, . Microstructure and mechanical properties of super-strong nanocrystalline tungsten processed by high-pressure torsion.Acta Materialia, 2006, 54: 4079–4089

[83] Guo H Y, Xia M, Chan L C, . Nanostructured laminar tungsten alloy with improved ductility by surface mechanical attrition treatment.Scientific Reports, 2017, 7: 1351

[84] Ma J F, Hu L Q, Liu X G, . Thermal stability of nanocrystallized surface layer in Al‒Zn‒Mg alloy by surface mechanical attrition treatment.Materials Science Forum, 2007, 546–549: 1129–1134

[85] Chang H W, Kelly P, Shi Y N, . Thermal stability of nanocrystallized surface produced by surface mechanical attrition treatment in aluminum alloys.Surface and Coatings Technology, 2012, 206: 3970–3980

[86] Li Y F, Chen C, Ranabhat J, , . Formation mechanism and mechanical properties of surface nanocrystallized Ti‒6Al‒4V alloy processed by surface mechanical attrition treatment. Rare Metals, 2017, doi:10.1007/s12598-017-0988-4

[87] Qin W, Ren F, Doerner R P, . Nanochannel structures in W enhance radiation tolerance.Acta Materialia, 2018, 153: 147–155

[88] El-Atwani O, Esquivel E, Aydogan E, . Unprecedented irradiation resistance of nanocrystalline tungsten with equiaxed nanocrystalline grains to dislocation loop accumulation.Acta Materialia, 2019, 165: 118–128

[89] Mao H, Zhang Y, Wang J, . Microstructure, mechanical properties, and reinforcement mechanism of second-phase reinforced TiC-based composites: a review.Coatings, 2022, 12(6): 801

[90] Cui K, Mao H, Zhang Y, . Microstructure, mechanical properties, and reinforcement mechanism of carbide toughened ZrC-based ultra-high temperature ceramics: a review.Composite Interfaces, 2022, 29(7): 729–748

[91] Hammond K D, Naeger I V, Widanagamaachchi W, . Helium flux effects on bubble growth and surface morphology in plasma-facing tungsten from large-scale molecular dynamics simulations.Nuclear Fusion, 2019, 59: 066035

[92] Liu S G, Dai S Y, Sang C F, . Molecular dynamics simulation of the formation, growth and bursting of bubbles in tungsten exposed to high fluxes of low energy deuterium.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2015, 463: 363–366

[93] Panizo-Laiz G, Díaz-Rodríguez P, Rivera A, . Experimental and computational studies of the influence of grain boundaries and temperature on the radiation-induced damage and hydrogen behavior in tungsten.Nuclear Fusion, 2019, 59: 086055

[94] Fu B Q, Wang J, Qiu M J, . Retention/reflection of hydrogen and surface evolution during cumulative bombardment of low-energy hydrogen on tungsten: a molecular dynamics study.Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 2020, 462: 55–61

[95] Piaggi P M, Bringa E M, Pasianot R C, . Hydrogen diffusion and trapping in nanocrystalline tungsten.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2015, 458: 233–239

[96] Henriksson K O E, Vörtler K, Dreißigacker S, . Sticking of atomic hydrogen on the tungsten (0 0 1) surface.Surface Science, 2006, 600: 3167

[97] Valles G, Panizo-Laiz M, González C, . Influence of grain boundaries on the radiation-induced defects and hydrogen in nanostructured and coarse grained tungsten.Acta Materialia, 2017, 122: 277–286

[98] Yang X, Hassanein A . Molecular dynamics simulation of deuterium trapping and bubble formation in tungsten.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2013, 434(1–3): 1–6

[99] Yan J, Li X, Zhu K . Fluence dependence of surface morphology and deuterium retention in W bulks and nanocrystalline W films exposed to deuterium plasma.Applied Sciences, 2021, 11: 1619

[100] El-Atwani O, Esquivel E, Efe M, . Loop and void damage during heavy ion irradiation on nanocrystalline and coarse grained tungsten: microstructure, effect of dpa rate, temperature, and grain size.Acta Materialia, 2018, 149: 206–219

[101] El-Atwani O, Hattar K, Hinks J A, . Helium bubble formation in ultrafine and nanocrystalline tungsten under different extreme conditions.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2015, 458: 216–223

[102] Jenkins M . Characterisation of radiation-damage microstructures by TEM.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 1994, 216: 124–156

[103] Jenkins M L, Kirk M A. Characterisation of Radiation Damage by Transmission Electron Microscopy. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press, 2000

[104] Yi X, Jenkins M L, Hattar K, . Characterisation of radiation damage in W and W-based alloys from 2 MeV self-ion near-bulk implantations.Acta Materialia, 2015, 92: 163–177

[105] Yabuuchi K, Saito M, Kasada R, . Neutron irradiation hardening and microstructure changes in Fe‒Mn binary alloys.Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2011, 414(3): 498–502

Authors’ contribution

Conceptualization, Z.W. and Q.L.; methodology, Z.W. and X.Y.; software, Z.W.; validation, Z.W. and Q.L.; formal analysis, Q.L.; investigation, X.Y.; resources, Z.W.; data curation, Q.L. and X.Y.; writing (original draft preparation), Z.W.; writing (review and editing), Q.L. and X.Y.; visualization, Z.W. and Q.L.; supervision, Q.L.; project administration, Z.W.; funding acquisition, Z.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Disclosure of potential conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interest.

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 12105254).

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2023 Higher Education Press