Chemical vapor deposited diamond with versatile grades: from gemstone to quantum electronics

Abstract

Chemical vapor deposited (CVD) diamond as a burgeoning multi-functional material with tailored quality and characteristics can be artificially synthesized and controlled for various applications. Correspondingly, the application-related “grade” concept associated with materials choice and design was gradually formulated, of which the availability and the performance are optimally suited. In this review, the explicit diversity of CVD diamond and the clarification of typical grades for applications, i.e., from resplendent gem-grade to promising quantum-grade, were systematically summarized and discussed, according to the crystal quality and main consideration of ubiquitous nitrogen impurity content as well as major applications. Realizations of those, from quantum-grade with near-ideal crystal to electronic-grade having extremely low imperfections and then to optical, thermal as well as mechanical-grade needing controlled flaws and allowable impurities, would competently fulfill the multi-field application prospects with appropriate choice in terms of cost and quality. Exceptionally, wide range defects and impurities in the gem-grade diamond (only indicating single crystal), which are detrimental for technology applications, endows CVD crystals with fancy colors to challenge their natural counterparts.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

CVD diamond / synthesis and characterization / quality and impurity / grading / application

References

[1] Ogden J. Diamonds: An Early History of the King of Gems. New Haven, USA: Yale University Press, 2018

[2] Breeding C M. Colored diamonds: the rarity and beauty of imperfection. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54: 275

[3] Butler J E, Woodin R L. Thin film diamond growth mechanisms. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A: Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, 1993, 342(1664): 209–224

[4] Renfro N, Koivula J I, Wang W Y, . Synthetic gem materials in the 2000s: a decade in review. Gems & Gemology, 2010, 46(4): 260–273

[5] Amaratunga G A J. A dawn for carbon electronics? Science, 2002, 297(5587): 1657–1658

[6] Liu T, Raabe D, Mao W M. A review of crystallographic textures in chemical vapor-deposited diamond films. Frontiers of Materials Science, 2010, 4(1): 1–16

[7] Cumont A, Pitt A R, Lambert P A, . Properties, mechanism and applications of diamond as an antibacterial material. Functional Diamond, 2021, 1(1): 1–28

[8] Zheng Y T, Wei J J, Liu J L, . Carbon materials: the burgeoning promise in electronics. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, 2022, doi:10.1007/s12613-021-2358-3 (in press)

[9] Yang H C, Ma Y D, Dai Y. Progress of structural and electronic properties of diamond: a mini review. Functional Diamond, 2021, 1(1): 150–159

[10] Mildren R P, Rabeau J R, eds. Optical Engineering of Diamond. 1st ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2013

[11] Liu K, Zhang S, Ralchenko V, . Tailoring of typical color centers in diamond for photonics. Advanced Materials, 2021, 33(6): 2000891

[12] Bland S. Diamond circuits are forever: carbon. Materials Today, 2011, 14(10): 460

[13] Graebner J E, Reiss M E, Seibles L, . Phonon scattering in chemical-vapor-deposited diamond. Physical Review B, 1994, 50(6): 3702–3713

[14] Worner E, Wild C, Muller-Sebert W, . Thermal conductivity of CVD diamond films: high-precision, temperature-resolved measurements. Diamond and Related Materials, 1996, 5(6–8): 688–692

[15] Wang W H, Dai B, Wang Y, . Recent progress of diamond optical window-related components. Materials Science and Technology, 2020, 28: 42–57

[16] Kasugai A, Sakamoto K, Takahashi K, . Chemical vapor deposition diamond window for high-power and long pulse millimeter wave transmission. Review of Scientific Instruments, 1998, 69(5): 2160–2165

[17] Coe S E, Sussmann R S. Optical, thermal and mechanical properties of CVD diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2000, 9(9–10): 1726–1729

[18] Heidinger R, Dammertz G, Meier A, . CVD diamond windows studied with low-and high-power millimeter waves. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, 2002, 30(3): 800–807

[19] Mildren R P. Intrinsic optical properties of diamond. In: Mildren R P, Rabeau J R, eds. Optical Engineering of Diamond. 1st ed. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2013, 1–34

[20] Marinelli M, Milani E, Paoletti A, . Growth of detector grade CVD diamond films and microscopic interpretation of their efficiency and charge collection distance in the normal and pumped states. Diamond and Related Materials, 2001, 10(9–10): 1783–1787

[21] Bergonzo P, Barrett R, Hainaut O, . Imaging of the sensitivity in detector grade polycrystalline diamonds using micro-focused X-ray beams. Diamond and Related Materials, 2002, 11(3–6): 418–422

[22] Okushi H, Watanabe H, Ri S, . Device-grade homoepitaxial diamond film growth. Journal of Crystal Growth, 2002, 237–239: 1269–1276

[23] Takeuchi D, Watanabe H, Yamanaka S, . Defects in device grade homoepitaxial diamond thin films grown with ultra-low CH₄/H₂ conditions by microwave-plasma chemical vapor deposition. Physica Status Solidi A: Applied Research, 1999, 174(1): 101–115

[24] Takeuchi D, Yamanaka S, Watanabe H, . Device grade B-doped homoepitaxial diamond thin films. Physica Status Solidi A: Applied Research, 2001, 186(2): 269–280

[25] Wort C J H, Balmer R S. Diamond as an electronic material. Materials Today, 2008, 11(1–2): 22–28

[26] Isberg J, Hammersberg J, Johansson E, . High carrier mobility in single-crystal plasma-deposited diamond. Science, 2002, 297(5587): 1670–1672

[27] Lee S T, Lifshitz Y. The road to diamond wafers. Nature, 2003, 424(6948): 500–501

[28] Prawer S, Greentree A D. Applied physics: diamond for quantum computing. Science, 2008, 320(5883): 1601–1602

[29] Field J E. The mechanical and strength properties of diamond. Reports on Progress in Physics, 2012, 75(12): 126505

[30] Garifo S, Stanicki D, Ayata G, . Nanodiamonds as nanomaterial for biomedical field. Frontiers of Materials Science, 2021, 15(3): 334–351

[31] Simakov S K. On the origin of large type IIa gem diamonds. Ore Geology Reviews, 2018, 102: 195–203

[32] Ke J, Lu T J, Lan Y, . Recent developments in detection and gemology in China, particularly for Chinese synthetic diamonds. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(3): 268

[33] Kasu M. Diamond epitaxy: basics and applications. Progress in Crystal Growth and Characterization of Materials, 2016, 62(2): 317–328

[34] Eaton-Magaña S, Breeding C M. Features of synthetic diamonds. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(2): 202–204

[35] Wang W Y, Moses T, Linares R C, . Gem-quality synthetic diamonds grown by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. Gems & Gemology, 2003, 39(4): 268–283

[36] Schwander M, Partes K. A review of diamond synthesis by CVD processes. Diamond and Related Materials, 2011, 20(9): 1287–1301

[37] Balmer R S, Brandon J R, Clewes S L, . Chemical vapour deposition synthetic diamond: materials, technology and applications. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 2009, 21(36): 364221

[38] Thoms B D, Russell J N, Pehrsson P E, . Adsorption and abstraction of hydrogen on polycrystalline diamond. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 1994, 100(11): 8425–8431

[39] Diggle P L, Haenens-Johansson U F S, Wang W Y, . Diamond at the diffraction limit: optical characterization of synthetic diamond. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54: 265

[40] Shigley J E, Breeding C M. Optical defects in diamond: a quick reference chart. Gems & Gemology, 2013, 49(2): 107–111

[41] Fairchild B A, Rubanov S, Lau D W M, . Mechanism for the amorphisation of diamond. Advanced Materials, 2012, 24(15): 2024–2029

[42] Fairchild B A, Olivero P, Rubanov S, . Fabrication of ultrathin single-crystal diamond membranes. Advanced Materials, 2008, 20(24): 4793–4798

[43] Breeding C M, Shen A H, Eaton-Magaña S, . Developments in gemstone analysis techniques and instrumentation during the 2000s. Gems & Gemology, 2010, 46(3): 241–257

[44] Koenka I Y, Kauffmann Y, Hoffman A. Direct visualization and characterization of chemical bonding and phase composition of grain boundaries in polycrystalline diamond films by transmission electron microscopy and high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy. Applied Physics Letters, 2011, 99(20): 201907

[45] Ohmagari S, Yamada H, Tsubouchi N, . Toward high-performance diamond electronics: control and annihilation of dislocation propagation by metal-assisted termination. Physica Status Solidi A: Applications and Materials Science, 2019, 216(21): 1900498

[46] Teraji T, Yamamoto T, Watanabe K, . Homoepitaxial diamond film growth: high purity, high crystalline quality, isotopic enrichment, and single-color center formation. Physica Status Solidi A: Applications and Materials Science, 2015, 212(11): 2365–2384

[47] Shikata S, Yamaguchi K, Fujiwara A, . X-ray absorption fine structure study of heavily P doped (1€1€1) and (0€0€1) diamond. Applied Physics Letters, 2017, 110(7): 072106

[48] Breeding C M, Shigley J E. The “type” classification system of diamonds and its importance in gemology. Gems & Gemology, 2009, 45(2): 96–111

[49] Ashfold M N R, Goss J P, Green B L, . Nitrogen in diamond. Chemical Reviews, 2020, 120(12): 5745–5794

[50] Nebel C E. Nitrogen-vacancy doped CVD diamond for quantum applications: a review. Semiconductors and Semimetals, 2020, 103: 73–136

[51] Howell D. Strain-induced birefringence in natural diamond: a review. European Journal of Mineralogy, 2012, 24(4): 575–585

[52] Groat L. Scientific study of colored gem deposits and modern fingerprinting methods. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(3): 277–278

[53] Pan L S, Kania D R, Pianetta P, . Temperature dependent mobility in single-crystal and chemical vapor-deposited diamond. Journal of Applied Physics, 1993, 73(6): 2888–2894

[54] Hartl A, Garrido J A, Nowy S, . The ion sensitivity of surface conductive single crystalline diamond. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2007, 129(5): 1287–1292

[55] Onstad E, Clarke D. How man-made diamonds have grown to threaten natural gems. Reuters Business News, 2018

[56] Kitawaki H. Undisclosed samples of large CVD synthetic diamond. Gems & Gemology, 2013, 49(1): 60–61

[57] Renfro N D, Koivula J I, Muyal J, . Inclusion in natural, synthetic, and treated diamond. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(4): 428–429

[58] Cohen H, Ruthstein S. Evaluating the color and nature of diamonds via EPR spectroscopy. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(3): 276

[59] Magaña S E, Ardon T, Smit K V, . Natural-color pink, purple, red, and brown diamonds: band of many colors. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(4): 352–377

[60] Eaton-Magana S E, Ardon T, Zaitsev A M. LPHT annealing of brown-to-yellow type Ia diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, 2017, 77: 159–170

[61] Gu T T, Wang W Y. Optical defects in milky type IaB diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, 2018, 89: 322–329

[62] Collins A T. The detection of colour-enhanced and synthetic gem diamonds by optical spectroscopy. Diamond and Related Materials, 2003, 12(10–11): 1976–1983

[63] Fritsch E, Shigley J E, Moses T, . A green diamond a study of chameleonism. In: Content D J, ed. Leeds, UK: Maney and Sons Ltd., 1995

[64] Goss J P, Ewels C P, Briddon P R, . Bistable N₂–H complexes: the first proposed structure of a H-related colour-causing defect in diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2011, 20(7): 896–901

[65] Fujita N, Jones R, Öberg S, . Large spherical vacancy clusters in diamond — origin of the brown colouration? Diamond and Related Materials, 2009, 18(5–8): 843–845

[66] Eaton-Magana S, McElhenny G, Breeding C M, . Comparison of gemological and spectroscopic features in type IIa and Ia natural pink diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, 2020, 105: 107784

[67] Hainschwang T, Notari F, Fritsch E, . Natural, untreated diamonds showing the A, B and C infrared absorptions (“ABC diamonds”), and the H₂ absorption. Diamond and Related Materials, 2006, 15(10): 1555–1564

[68] Zaitsev A M, Kazuchits N M, Kazuchits V N, . Nitrogen-doped CVD diamond: nitrogen concentration, color and internal stress. Diamond and Related Materials, 2020, 105: 107794

[69] De Weerdt F, Van Royen J. Defects in coloured natural diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, 2001, 10(3–7): 474–479

[70] Jones R. Dislocations, vacancies and the brown colour of CVD and natural diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2009, 18(5–8): 820–826

[71] Wang W Y, Moe K S. CVD Synthetic diamond with fancy vivid orange color. Gems & Gemology, 2014, 50(4): 299

[72] Wang W Y, Moses T. Large pinkish orange CVD synthetic diamond. Gems & Gemology, 2018, 54(2): 216–217

[73] Moe K S, Wang W Y, D’Haenens-Johansson U. Yellow CVD synthetic diamond. Gems & Gemology, 2014, 50(2): 154–155

[74] Law B P L, Wang W Y. CVD synthetic diamond over 5 carats identified. Gems & Gemology, 2016, 52(4): 414–416

[75] Poon T, Lo C, Law B. Ring with a CVD synthetic melee. Gems & Gemology, 2016, 52(1): 75–76

[76] Magaña S. CVD synthetic diamond with unusual DiamondView image. Gems & Gemology, 2014, 50(1): 67–68

[77] Tang S, Su J, Lu T, . A melee-size CVD synthetic diamond in pearl and diamond jewelry. Gems & Gemology, 2017, 53(3): 382–383

[78] Willems B, Tallaire A, Achard J. Optical study of defects in thick undoped CVD synthetic diamond layers. Diamond and Related Materials, 2014, 41: 25–33

[79] Eaton-Magaña S, Shigley J E. Observations on CVD-grown synthetic diamonds: a review. Gems & Gemology, 2016, 52(3): 222–245

[80] Butler J E. Chemical vapor deposited diamond: maturity and diversity. Electrochemical Society Interface, 2003, 12(1): 22–26

[81] Fritsch E, Phelps A W. Type IIb diamond thin films deposited onto near-colorless natural gem diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, 1993, 2(2–4): 70–74

[82] Ardon T, McElhenny G. Synthetic diamond CVD layer grown on natural diamond. Gems & Gemology, 2019, 55(1): 97–99

[83] Wang W Y, D’Haenens-Johansson U F S, Johnson P, . CVD synthetic diamonds from gemesis corp. Gems & Gemology, 2012, 48(2): 80–97

[84] Zaitsev A M, Moe K S, Wang W Y. Defect transformations in nitrogen-doped CVD diamond during irradiation and annealing. Diamond and Related Materials, 2018, 88: 237–255

[85] Vins V G, Yelisseyev A P, Smovzh D V, . Optical properties of CVD single crystal diamonds before and after different post-growth treatments. Diamond and Related Materials, 2018, 86: 79–86

[86] Lim H, Park S, Cheong H, . Discrimination between natural and HPHT-treated type IIa diamonds using photoluminescence spectroscopy. Diamond and Related Materials, 2010, 19(10): 1254–1258

[87] Polyakov S N, Denisov V N, Kuzmin N V, . Characterization of top-quality type IIa synthetic diamonds for new X-ray optics. Diamond and Related Materials, 2011, 20(5–6): 726–728

[88] Han Q G, Li M Z, Jia X P, . Modeling of effective design of high pressure anvils used for large scale commercial production of gem quality large single crystal diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2011, 20(7): 969–973

[89] Wang Z K, Ma H A, Fang S, . Synthesis and characterization of gem diamond single crystals in Fe–C system under high temperature and high pressure. Journal of Crystal Growth, 2020, 531: 125371

[90] Stoupin S. Novel diamond X-ray crystal optics for synchrotrons and X-ray free-electron lasers. Diamond and Related Materials, 2014, 49: 39–47

[91] De Sio A, Bocci A, Pace E, . Diamond solid state ionization chambers for x-ray absorption spectroscopy applications. Applied Physics Letters, 2008, 93(8): 083503

[92] Song Y, Peng B D, Song G Z, . Investigating non-equilibrium carrier lifetimes in nitrogen-doped and boron-doped single crystal HPHT diamonds with an optical method. Applied Physics Letters, 2018, 112(2): 022103

[93] Tallaire A, Mille V, Brinza O, . Thick CVD diamond films grown on high-quality type IIa HPHT diamond substrates from new diamond technology. Diamond and Related Materials, 2017, 77: 146–152

[94] Achard J, Silva F, Brinza O, . Identification of etch-pit crystallographic faces induced on diamond surface by H₂/O₂ etching plasma treatment. Physica Status Solidi A: Applications and Materials Science, 2009, 206(9): 1949–1954

[95] Silva F, Achard J, Brinza O, . High quality, large surface area, homo epitaxial MPACVD diamond growth. Diamond and Related Materials, 2009, 18(5–8): 683–697

[96] Tallaire A, Achard J, Brinza O, . Growth strategy for controlling dislocation densities and crystal morphologies of single crystal diamond by using pyramidal-shape substrates. Diamond and Related Materials, 2013, 33: 71–77

[97] Vikharev A L, Lobaev M A, Gorbachev A M, . Investigation of homoepitaxial growth by microwave plasma CVD providing high growth rate and high quality of diamond simultaneously. Materials Today: Communications, 2020, 22: 100816

[98] Lab-grown and Mined Sectors. “Call a truce”. International Diamond Exchange (IDEX), 2020

[99] Zhao Z S, Xu B, Tian Y J. Recent advances in superhard materials. Annual Review of Materials Research, 2016, 46(1): 383–406

[100] Blank V, Popov M, Pivovarov G, . Ultrahard and superhard phases of fullerite C₆₀: comparison with diamond on hardness and wear. Diamond and Related Materials, 1998, 7(2–5): 427–431

[101] Zhang L J, Wang Y C, Lv J, . Materials discovery at high pressures. Nature Reviews Materials, 2017, 2(4): 17005

[102] Liang Q, Yan C S, Meng Y F, . Recent advances in high-growth rate single-crystal CVD diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2009, 18(5–8): 698–703

[103] Scott D E. The history of and impact of synthetic diamond cutters and diamond enhanced inserts on the oil and gas industry. Industrial Diamond Review, 2006, 66(1): 48–55

[104] Ge Y F, Xu J H, Yang H. Diamond tools wear and their applicability when ultra-precision turning of SiCp/2009Al matrix composite. Wear, 2010, 269(11–12): 699–708

[105] Ding X, Jarfors A E W, Lim G C, . A study of the cutting performance of poly-crystalline oxygen free copper with single crystalline diamond micro-tools. Precision Engineering, 2012, 36(1): 141–152

[106] Kawasegi N, Kawashima T, Morita N, . Effect of texture shape on machining performance of textured diamond cutting tool. Precision Engineering, 2019, 60: 21–27

[107] Chrenko R M, Strong H M. Physical Properties of Diamond Report No. 75CRDO89. Schenectady, NY: General Electric, 1975

[108] Niu H Y, Niu S W, Oganov A R. Simple and accurate model of fracture toughness of solids. Journal of Applied Physics, 2019, 125(6): 065105

[109] Hess P. The mechanical properties of various chemical vapor deposition diamond structures compared to the ideal single crystal. Journal of Applied Physics, 2012, 111(5): 051101

[110] Yan C S, Mao H K, Li W, . Ultrahard diamond single crystals from chemical vapor deposition. Physica Status Solidi A: Applied Research, 2004, 201(4): R25–R27

[111] Zong W J, Sun T, Li D, . Design criterion for crystal orientation of diamond cutting tool. Diamond and Related Materials, 2009, 18(4): 642–650

[112] Sumiya H. Superhard diamond indenter prepared from high-purity synthetic diamond crystal. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2005, 76(2): 026112

[113] Irifune T, Kurio A, Sakamoto S, . Ultrahard polycrystalline diamond from graphite. Nature, 2003, 421(6923): 599–600

[114] G’Hern M E, McHargue C J, Clausing R E, . Extended Abstracts No. 19, Technology Update on Diamond Films. Pittsburg, USA: Materials Research Society, 1989

[115] Novikov N V, Dub S N. Hardness and fracture toughness of CVD diamond film. Diamond and Related Materials, 1996, 5(9): 1026–1030

[116] Liang Y F, Zheng Y T, Wei J J, . Effect of grain boundary on polycrystalline diamond polishing by high-speed dynamic friction. Diamond and Related Materials, 2021, 117: 108461

[117] Zheng Y T, Ye H T, Thornton R, . Subsurface cleavage of diamond after high-speed three-dimensional dynamic friction polishing. Diamond and Related Materials, 2020, 101: 107600

[118] Zhao G L, Li Z Y, Hu M S, . Fabrication and performance of CVD diamond cutting tool in micro milling of oxygen-free copper. Diamond and Related Materials, 2019, 100: 107589

[119] Pickles C S J. The fracture stress of chemical vapour deposited diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2002, 11(12): 1913–1922

[120] CVD Diamond Handbook. Element Six, De Beers Group, 2020

[121] An K, Chen L X, Yan X B, . Fracture behavior of diamond films deposited by DC arc plasma jet CVD. Ceramics International, 2018, 44(11): 13402–13408

[122] Paci J T, Belytschko T, Schatz G C. Mechanical properties of ultrananocrystalline diamond prepared in a nitrogen-rich plasma: a theoretical study. Physical Review B, 2006, 74(18): 184112

[123] Yang J X, Zhang H D, Li C M, . Effects of nitrogen addition on morphology and mechanical property of DC arc plasma jet CVD diamond films. Diamond and Related Materials, 2004, 13(1): 139–144

[124] Denkena B, Grove T, Gartzke T. Wear mechanisms of CVD diamond tools for patterning vitrified corundum grinding wheels. Wear, 2019, 436-437: 203007

[125] Qian J, McMurray C E, Mukhopadhyay D K, . Polycrystalline diamond cutters sintered with magnesium carbonate in cubic anvil press. International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 2012, 31: 71–75

[126] Li G X, Rahim M Z, Pan W C, . The manufacturing and the application of polycrystalline diamond tools — a comprehensive review. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2020, 56: 400–416

[127] Hu M, Ming W W, An Q L, . Experimental study on milling performance of 2D C/SiC composites using polycrystalline diamond tools. Ceramics International, 2019, 45(8): 10581–10588

[128] Erasmus R M, Comins J D, Mofokeng V, . Application of Raman spectroscopy to determine stress in polycrystalline diamond tools as a function of tool geometry and temperature. Diamond and Related Materials, 2011, 20(7): 907–911

[129] Belmonte M, Ferro P, Fernandes A J S, . Wear resistant CVD diamond tools for turning of sintered hardmetals. Diamond and Related Materials, 2003, 12(3–7): 738–743

[130] Almeida F A, Fernandes A J S, Oliveira F J, . Semi-orthogonal turning of hard metal with CVD diamond and PCD inserts at different cutting angles. Vacuum, 2009, 83(10): 1218–1223

[131] Guo B, Wu M, Zhao Q, . Improvement of precision grinding performance of CVD diamond wheels by micro-structured surfaces. Ceramics International, 2018, 44(14): 17333–17339

[132] Sumiya H, Ishida Y. Real hardness of high-purity ultra-fine nano-polycrystalline diamond synthesized by direct conversion sintering under HPHT. Diamond and Related Materials, 2019, 100: 107560

[133] Huang Q, Yu D L, Xu B, . Nanotwinned diamond with unprecedented hardness and stability. Nature, 2014, 510(7504): 250–253

[134] Regan B, Aghajamali A, Froech J, . Plastic deformation of single-crystal diamond nanopillars. Advanced Materials, 2020, 32(9): 1906458

[135] Nie A M, Bu Y Q, Huang J Q, . Direct observation of room-temperature dislocation plasticity in diamond. Matter, 2020, 2(5): 1222–1232

[136] Liao M Y. Progress in semiconductor diamond photodetectors and MEMS sensors. Functional Diamond, 2021, 1(1): 29–46

[137] Sepulveda N, Lu J, Aslam D M, . High-performance polycrystalline diamond micro- and nanoresonators. Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2008, 17(2): 473–482

[138] Castelletto S, Rosa L, Blackledge J, . Advances in diamond nanofabrication for ultrasensitive devices. Microsystems & Nanoengineering, 2017, 3(1): 17061

[139] Tao Y, Boss J M, Moores B A, . Single-crystal diamond nanomechanical resonators with quality factors exceeding one million. Nature Communications, 2014, 5(1): 3638

[140] Palko J W, Lee H, Zhang C, . Extreme two-phase cooling from laser-etched diamond and conformal, template-fabricated microporous copper. Advanced Functional Materials, 2017, 27(45): 1703265

[141] Tsao J Y, Chowdhury S, Hollis M A, . Ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors: research opportunities and challenges. Advanced Electronic Materials, 2018, 4(1): 1600501

[142] Kasu M, Ueda K, Ye H, . High RF output power for H-terminated diamond FETs. Diamond and Related Materials, 2006, 15(4–8): 783–786

[143] Pomeroya J, Bernardonia M, Saruaa A, . Achieving the best thermal performance for GaN-on-diamond. IEEE Compound Semiconductor Integrated Circuit Symposium, 2013

[144] Qi Z N, Zheng Y T, Wei J J, . Surface treatment of an applied novel all-diamond microchannel heat sink for heat transfer performance enhancement. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2020, 177: 115489

[145] Morelli D T, Beetz C P, Perry T A. Thermal conductivity of synthetic diamond films. Journal of Applied Physics, 1988, 64(6): 3063–3066

[146] Wilks J, Wilks E. Properties and Applications of Diamond. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1991

[147] Sood A, Cho J, Hobart K D, . Anisotropic and inhomogeneous thermal conduction in suspended thin-film polycrystalline diamond. Journal of Applied Physics, 2016, 119(17): 175103

[148] Anaya J, Bai T, Wang Y, . Simultaneous determination of the lattice thermal conductivity and grain/grain thermal resistance in polycrystalline diamond. Acta Materialia, 2017, 139: 215–225

[149] Faili F, Huang W, Calvo J, . Disturbed and scattered: the path of thermal conduction through diamond lattice. IEEE Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems, 2016, 7: 7517675

[150] Slack G A. Thermal conductivity of pure and impure silicon, silicon carbide, and diamond. Journal of Applied Physics, 1964, 35(12): 3460–3466

[151] Yue D H, Gao Y, Zhao L, . In situ thermal conductivity measurement in diamond anvil cell. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 2019, 58(4): 040906

[152] Katcho N A, Carrete J, Li W, . Effect of nitrogen and vacancy defects on the thermal conductivity of diamond: an ab initio Green’s function approach. Physical Review B, 2014, 90(9): 094117

[153] Inyushkin A V, Taldenkov A N, Ralchenko V G, . Thermal conductivity of high purity synthetic single crystal diamonds. Physical Review B, 2018, 97(14): 144305

[154] Sukhadolau A V, Ivakin E V, Ralchenko V G, . Thermal conductivity of CVD diamond at elevated temperatures. Diamond and Related Materials, 2005, 14(3–7): 589–593

[155] Worner E, Pleuler E, Wild C, . Thermal and optical properties of high purity CVD diamond discs doped with boron and nitrogen. Diamond and Related Materials, 2003, 12(3–7): 744–748

[156] Verhoeven H, Flöter A, Reiß H, . Influence of the microstructure on the thermal properties of thin polycrystalline diamond films. Applied Physics Letters, 1997, 71(10): 1329–1331

[157] Morelli D T, Hartnett T M, Robinson C J. Phonon-defect scattering in high thermal conductivity diamond films. Applied Physics Letters, 1991, 59(17): 2112–2114

[158] Faili F, Palmer N, Oh S, . Physical and thermal characterization of CVD diamond: a bottoms-up review. IEEE ITHERM Conference, 2017, 9: 1–7

[159] Graebner J E, Jin S, Kammlott G W, . Large anisotropic thermal conductivity in synthetic diamond films. Nature, 1992, 359(6394): 401–403

[160] Simon R B, Anaya J, Faili F, . Effect of grain size of polycrystalline diamond on its heat spreading properties. Applied Physics Express, 2016, 9(6): 061302

[161] Sood A, Cheaito R, Bai T, . Direct visualization of thermal conductivity suppression due to enhanced phonon scattering near individual grain boundaries. Nano Letters, 2018, 18(6): 3466–3472

[162] Twitchen D J, Pickles C S J, Coe S E, . Thermal conductivity measurements on CVD diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2001, 10(3–7): 731–735

[163] Khomich A V, Ralchenko V G, Vlasov A V, . Effect of high temperature annealing on optical and thermal properties of CVD diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2001, 10(3–7): 546–551

[164] Friel I, Geoghegan S L, Twitchen D J, . Development of high quality single crystal diamond for novel laser applications. Proceedings of SPIE, 2010, 7838: 783819

[165] Huszka G, Malpiece N, Naamoun M, . Single crystal diamond gain mirrors for high performance vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers. Diamond and Related Materials, 2020, 104: 107744

[166] Friel I. Optical quality diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. In: Mildren R, Rabeau J, eds. Optical Engineering of Diamond. Wiley-VCH, 2013

[167] Dodson J M, Brandon J R, Dhillon H K, . Single crystal and polycrystalline CVD diamond for demanding optical applications. Proceedings of the Society for Photo-Instrumentation Engineers, 2011, 8016: 80160L

[168] Bennett A M, Wickham B J, Dhillon H K, . Development of high-purity optical grade single-crystal CVD diamond for intracavity cooling. Proceedings of the Society for Photo-Instrumentation Engineers, 2014, 8959: 89590R

[169] Liu H Y, Reilly S, Herrnsdorf J, . Large radius of curvature micro-lenses on single crystal diamond for application in monolithic diamond Raman lasers. Diamond and Related Materials, 2016, 65: 37–41

[170] Parrotta D C, Kemp A J, Dawson M D, . Multiwatt, continuous-wave, tunable diamond Raman laser with intracavity frequency-doubling to the visible region. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 2013, 19(4): 1400108

[171] McKay A, Kitzler O, Mildren R P. Simultaneous brightness enhancement and wavelength conversion to the eye-safe region in a high-power diamond Raman laser. Laser & Photonics Reviews, 2014, 8(3): L37–L41

[172] Desjardins K, Pomorski M, Morse J. Ultra-thin optical grade scCVD diamond as X-ray beam position monitor. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation, 2014, 21(6): 1217–1223

[173] Lang A R, Makepeace A P W, Moore M, . On the variation of X-ray diffraction contrast with wavelength: a study with synchrotron radiation. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 1983, 16(1): 113–125

[174] Bennett A. Diamond — a laser engineer’s best friend. Optik & Photonik, 2014, 9(4): 49–52

[175] Pickles C S J, Madgwick T D, Sussmann R S, . Optical performance of chemically vapour-deposited diamond at infrared wavelengths. Diamond and Related Materials, 2000, 9(3–6): 916–920

[176] Woerner E, Wild C, Mueller-Sebert W, . CVD-diamond optical lenses. Diamond and Related Materials, 2001, 10(3–7): 557–560

[177] Yang J X, Duan X F, Lu F X, . The influence of dark feature on optical and thermal property of DC Arc Plasma Jet CVD diamond films. Diamond and Related Materials, 2005, 14(10): 1583–1587

[178] Meykens K, Haenen K, Nesla’dek M, . Measurement and mapping of very low optical absorption of CVD diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2000, 9(3–6): 1021–1025

[179] Karlsson M, Nikolajeff F. Diamond micro-optics: microlenses and antireflection structured surfaces for the infrared spectral region. Optics Express, 2003, 11(5): 502–507

[180] Yurov V Y, Bushuev E V, Popovich A F, . Near-infrared refractive index of synthetic single crystal and polycrystalline diamonds at high temperatures. Journal of Applied Physics, 2017, 122(24): 243106

[181] Yamamoto K, Iwasaki H, Tsuji S, . Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy of CVD diamond. IEEE 37th International Conference on Infrared Millimeter and Terahertz Waves, 2012, 9: 6380244

[182] Zheng Y T, Zhang R, Chen X D, . Doomed couple of diamond with terahertz frequency: hyperfine quality discrimination and complex dielectric responses of diamond in the terahertz waveband. ACS Applied Electronic Materials, 2020, 2(5): 1459–1469

[183] Garin B M, Parshin V V, Myasnikova S E, . Nature of millimeter wave losses in low loss CVD diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, 2003, 12(10–11): 1755–1759

[184] Yamada H, Meier A, Mazzocchi F, . Dielectric properties of single crystalline diamond wafers with large area at microwave wavelengths. Diamond and Related Materials, 2015, 58: 1–4

[185] Liu Y, Ding M, Su J, . Dielectric properties of nitrogen-doped polycrystalline diamond films in Ka band. Diamond and Related Materials, 2017, 76: 68–73

[186] Lin C N, Lu Y J, Yang X, . Diamond-based all-carbon photodetectors for solar-blind imaging. Advanced Optical Materials, 2018, 6(15): 1800068

[187] Lu Y J, Lin C N, Shan C X. Optoelectronic diamond: growth, properties, and photodetection applications. Advanced Optical Materials, 2018, 6(20): 1800359

[188] Mamin R F, Inushima T. Conductivity in boron-doped diamond. Physical Review B, 2001, 63(3): 033201

[189] Geis M W, Wade T C, Wuorio C H, . Progress toward diamond power field-effect transistors. Physica Status Solidi A: Applications and Materials Science, 2018, 215(22): 1800681

[190] Bogdanov S A, Gorbachev A M, Radishev D B, . Nanometric diamond delta doping with boron. Physica Status Solidi: Rapid Research Letters, 2017, 1: 1600329

[191] Kawarada H. Hydrogen-terminated diamond surfaces and interfaces. Surface Science Reports, 1996, 26(7): 205–259

[192] Pakes C I, Garrido J A, Kawarada H. Diamond surface conductivity: properties, devices, and sensors. MRS Bulletin, 2014, 39(6): 542–548

[193] Prins J F. n-Type semiconducting diamond by means of oxygen-ion implantation. Physical Review B, 2000, 61(11): 7191–7194

[194] Stenger I, Pinault-Thaury M A, Kociniewski T, . Impurity-to-band activation energy in phosphorus doped diamond. Journal of Applied Physics, 2013, 114(7): 073711

[195] Pinault-Thaury M A, Stenger I, Gillet R, . Attractive electron mobility in (1€1€3) n-type phosphorus-doped homoepitaxial diamond. Carbon, 2021, 175: 254–258

[196] Goss J P, Briddon P R, Jones R, . Donor and acceptor states in diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2004, 13(4–8): 684–690

[197] Sakaguchi I, Gamo M N, Kikuchi Y, . Sulfur: a donor dopant for n-type diamond semiconductors. Physical Review B, 1999, 60(4): R2139–R2141

[198] Tang L, Yue R, Wang Y. N-type B–S co-doping and S doping in diamond from first principles. Carbon, 2018, 130: 458–465

[199] Lombardi E B, Mainwood A, Osuch K. Interaction of hydrogen with boron, phosphorus, and sulfur in diamond. Physical Review B, 2004, 70(20): 205201

[200] Goss J P, Briddon P R, Shaw M J. Density functional simulations of silicon-containing point defects in diamond. Physical Review B, 2007, 76(7): 075204

[201] Chernyshev V A, Meijer J, Grambole D, . n-Type diamond produced by MeV lithium implantation in channeling direction. Diamond and Related Materials, 2008, 17(11): 1933–1935

[202] Lombardi E B, Mainwood A, Osuch K. Ab initio study of lithium and sodium in diamond. Physical Review B, 2007, 76(15): 155203

[203] Sque S J, Jones R, Goss J P, . Shallow donors in diamond: chalcogens, pnictogens, and their hydrogen complexes. Physical Review Letters, 2004, 92(1): 017402

[204] Masante C, Pernot J, Marechal A, . High temperature operation of a monolithic bidirectional diamond switch. Diamond and Related Materials, 2021, 111: 108185

[205] Lloret F, Eon D, Bustarret E, . Selectively boron doped homoepitaxial diamond growth for power device applications. Applied Physics Letters, 2021, 118(2): 023504

[206] Achard J, Tallaire A. Diamond wafer technologies for semiconductor device applications. In: Koizumi S, Umezawa H, Pernot J, ., eds. Power Electronics Device Applications of Diamond Semiconductors. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, 2018, 1–97

[207] Pinault-Thaury M A, Temgoua S, Gillet R, . Phosphorus-doped (1€1€3) CVD diamond: A breakthrough towards bipolar diamond devices. Applied Physics Letters, 2019, 114(11): 112106

[208] Khramtsov I A, Fedyanin D Y. Superinjection in diamond p-i-n diodes: bright single-photon electroluminescence of color centers beyond the doping limit. Physical Review Applied, 2019, 12(2): 024013

[209] Udvarhelyi P, Shkolnikov V O, Gali A, . Spin–strain interaction in nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond. Physical Review B, 2018, 98(7): 075201

[210] Pernot J, Volpe P N, Omnès F, . Hall hole mobility in boron-doped homoepitaxial diamond. Physical Review B, 2010, 81(20): 205203

[211] Yamasaki S, Gheeraert E, Koide Y. Doping and interface of homoepitaxial diamond for electronic applications. MRS Bulletin, 2014, 39(6): 499–503

[212] Jena D, Mishra U K. Effect of scattering by strain fields surrounding edge dislocations on electron transport in two-dimensional electron gases. Applied Physics Letters, 2002, 80(1): 64–66

[213] Klein O, Mayr M, Fischer M, . Propagation and annihilation of threading dislocations during off-axis growth of heteroepitaxial diamond films. Diamond and Related Materials, 2016, 65: 53–58

[214] Schreck M, Ščajev P, Träger M, . Charge carrier trapping by dislocations in single crystal diamond. Journal of Applied Physics, 2020, 127(12): 125102

[215] Nebel C E, Munz J, Stutzmann M, . Electronic properties of CVD and synthetic diamond. Physical Review B, 1997, 55(15): 9786–9791

[216] Secroun A, Brinza O, Tardieu A, . Dislocation imaging for electronics application crystal selection. Physica Status Solidi A: Applications and Materials Science, 2007, 204(12): 4298–4304

[217] Reznik A, Uzan-Saguy C, Kalish R. Effects of point defects on the electrical properties of doped diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2000, 9(3–6): 1051–1056

[218] Kalish R, Uzan-Saguy C, Philosoph B, . Loss of electrical conductivity in boron-doped diamond due to ion-induced damage. Applied Physics Letters, 1997, 70(8): 999–1001

[219] Lohstroh A, Sellin P J, Wang S G, . Effect of dislocations on charge carrier mobility–lifetime product in synthetic single crystal diamond. Applied Physics Letters, 2007, 90(10): 102111

[220] Umezawa H. Recent advances in diamond power semiconductor devices. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 2018, 78: 147–156

[221] Umezawa H, Saito T, Tokuda N, . Leakage current analysis of diamond Schottky barrier diode. Applied Physics Letters, 2007, 90(7): 073506

[222] Kasu M, Kubovic M, Aleksov A, . Influence of epitaxy on the surface conduction of diamond film. Diamond and Related Materials, 2004, 13(2): 226–232

[223] Ristein J, Riedel M, Maier F, . Surface conductivity of diamond as a function of nitrogen doping. Physica Status Solidi A: Applied Research, 2001, 186(2): 249–256

[224] Pan L S, Kania D R, Han S, . Electrical transport-properties of undoped CVD diamond films. Science, 1992, 255(5046): 830–833

[225] Mokuno Y, Kato Y, Tsubouchi N, . A nitrogen doped low-dislocation density free-standing single crystal diamond plate fabricated by a lift-off process. Applied Physics Letters, 2014, 104(25): 252109

[226] Boussadi A, Tallaire A, Kasu M, . Reduction of dislocation densities in single crystal CVD diamond by confinement in the lateral sector. Diamond and Related Materials, 2018, 83: 162–169

[227] Martineau P M, Gaukroger M P, Guy K B, . High crystalline quality single crystal chemical vapour deposition diamond. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 2009, 21(36): 364205

[228] Tallaire A, Brinza O, Mille V, . Reduction of dislocations in single crystal diamond by lateral growth over a macroscopic hole. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(16): 1604823

[229] Markham M L, Dodson J M, Scarsbrook G A, . CVD diamond for spintronics. Diamond and Related Materials, 2011, 20(2): 134–139

[230] Balducci A, Marinelli M, Milani E, . Distribution of electrically active defects in chemical vapor deposition diamond: model and measurement. Applied Physics Letters, 2005, 86(2): 022108

[231] Schreck M, Gsell S, Brescia R, . Ion bombardment induced buried lateral growth: the key mechanism for the synthesis of single crystal diamond wafers. Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 44462

[232] Yamada H, Chayahara A, Mokuno Y, . Uniform growth and repeatable fabrication of inch-sized wafers of a single-crystal diamond. Diamond and Related Materials, 2013, 33: 27–31

[233] Naamoun M, Tallaire A, Doppelt P, . Reduction of dislocation densities in single crystal CVD diamond by using self-assembled metallic masks. Diamond and Related Materials, 2015, 58: 62–68

[234] Ichikawa K, Kurone K, Kodama H, . High crystalline quality heteroepitaxial diamond using grid-patterned nucleation and growth on Ir. Diamond and Related Materials, 2019, 94: 92–100

[235] Aida H, Ikejiri K, Kim S, . Overgrowth of diamond layers on diamond microneedles: new concept for freestanding diamond substrate by heteroepitaxy. Diamond and Related Materials, 2016, 66: 77–82

[236] Service R F. Diamond feats give quantum computing a solid boost. Science, 2010, 329(5992): 616–617

[237] Dong Y, Xu J Y, Zhang S C, . Composite-pulse enhanced room-temperature diamond magnetometry. Functional Diamond, 2021, 1(1): 125–134

[238] Orwa J O, Santori C, Fu K M C, . Engineering of nitrogen-vacancy color centers in high purity diamond by ion implantation and annealing. Journal of Applied Physics, 2011, 109(8): 083530

[239] Smits J, Damron J T, Kehayias P, . Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with a microfluidic diamond quantum sensor. Science Advances, 2019, 5(7): eaaw7895

[240] Hamlin J J, Zhou B B. Extreme diamond-based quantum sensors. Science, 2019, 366(6471): 1312–1313

[241] Bucher D B, Craik D P L A, Backlund M P, . Quantum diamond spectrometer for nanoscale NMR and ESR spectroscopy. Nature Protocols, 2019, 14(9): 2707–2747

[242] Sangtawesin S, Brundage T O, Atkins Z J, . Highly tunable formation of nitrogen-vacancy centers via ion implantation. Applied Physics Letters, 2014, 105(6): 063107

[243] Doherty M W, Manson N B, Delaney P, . The nitrogen-vacancy colour centre in diamond. Physics Reports, 2013, 528(1): 1–45

[244] Razinkovas L, Doherty M W, Manson N B, . Vibrational and vibronic structure of isolated point defects: the nitrogen-vacancy center in diamond. Physical Review B, 2021, 104(4): 045303

[245] Siyushev P, Nesladek M, Bourgeois E, . Photoelectrical imaging and coherent spin-state readout of single nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond. Science, 2019, 363(6428): 728–731

[246] Hensen B, Bernien H, Dre’au A E, . Loophole-free Bell inequality violation using electron spins separated by 1.3 kilometres. Nature, 2015, 526(7575): 682–686

[247] Shi F Z, Zhang Q, Wang P F, . Single-protein spin resonance spectroscopy under ambient conditions. Science, 2015, 347(6226): 1135–1138

[248] Bradley C E, Randall J, Abobeih M H, . A ten-qubit solid-state spin register with quantum memory up to one minute. Physical Review X, 2019, 9(3): 031045

[249] Li R, Kong F, Zhao P J, . Nanoscale electrometry based on a magnetic-field-resistant spin sensor. Physical Review Letters, 2020, 124(24): 247701

[250] Atatüre M, Englund D, Vamivakas N, . Material platforms for spin-based photonic quantum technologies. Nature Reviews: Materials, 2018, 3(5): 38–51

[251] Bradac C, Gao W B, Forneris J, . Quantum nanophotonics with group IV defects in diamond. Nature Communications, 2019, 10: 5625

[252] Zaitsev A M. Vibronic spectra of impurity-related optical centers in diamond. Physical Review B, 2000, 61(19): 12909–12922

[253] Kennedy T A, Colton J S, Butler J E, . Long coherence times at 300 K for nitrogen-vacancy center spins in diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. Applied Physics Letters, 2003, 83(20): 4190–4192

[254] Gaebel T, Domhan M, Popa I, . Room-temperature coherent coupling of single spins in diamond. Nature Physics, 2006, 2(6): 408–413

[255] Balasubramanian G, Neumann P, Twitchen D, . Ultralong spin coherence time in isotopically engineered diamond. Nature Materials, 2009, 8(5): 383–387

[256] Dolde F, Jakobi I, Naydenov B, . Room-temperature entanglement between single defect spins in diamond. Nature Physics, 2013, 9(3): 139–143

[257] Aharonovich I, Greentree A D, Prawer S. Diamond photonics. Nature Photonics, 2011, 5(7): 397–405

[258] Teraji T. Ultrapure homoepitaxial diamond films grown by chemical vapor deposition for quantum device application. Semiconductors and Semimetals, 2020, 103: 37–55

[259] Achard J, Jacques V, Tallaire A. Chemical vapour deposition diamond single crystals with nitrogen-vacancy centres: a review of material synthesis and technology for quantum sensing applications. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 2020, 53(31): 313001

[260] Lenzini F, Gruhler N, Walter N, . Diamond as a platform for integrated quantum photonics. Advanced Quantum Technologies, 2018, 1(3): 1800061

[261] Faraon A, Barclay P E, Santori C, . Resonant enhancement of the zero-phonon emission from a colour centre in a diamond cavity. Nature Photonics, 2011, 5(5): 301–305

[262] Hausmann B J M, Shields B J, Quan Q, . Coupling of NV centers to photonic crystal nanobeams in diamond. Nano Letters, 2013, 13(12): 5791–5796

[263] Riedel D, Söllner I, Shields B J, . Deterministic enhancement of coherent photon generation from a nitrogen-vacancy center in ultrapure diamond. Physical Review X, 2017, 7(3): 031040

[264] Hoinkis M, Weber E R, Landstrass M I, . Paramagnetic nitrogen in chemical vapor deposition diamond thin films. Applied Physics Letters, 1991, 59(15): 1870–1871

[265] Lühmann T, Raatz N, John R, . Screening and engineering of colour centres in diamond. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 2018, 51(48): 483002

[266] Yamamoto T, Umeda T, Watanabe K, . Extending spin coherence times of diamond qubits by high-temperature annealing. Physical Review B, 2013, 88(7): 075206

[267] Lobaev M A, Gorbachev A M, Bogdanov S A, . Influence of CVD diamond growth conditions on nitrogen incorporation. Diamond and Related Materials, 2017, 72: 1–6

[268] Mi S, Kiss M, Graziosi T, . Integrated photonic devices in single crystal diamond. Journal of Physics: Photonics, 2020, 2(4): 042001

[269] Bogdanov S A, Gorbachev A M, Radishev D B, . Investigation of high-density nitrogen vacancy center ensembles created in electron-irradiated and vacuum-annealed delta-doped layers. Physica Status Solidi: Rapid Research Letters, 2021, 15(2): 2000550

[270] Stephen C J, Green B L, Lekhai Y N D, . Deep three-dimensional solid-state qubit arrays with long-lived spin coherence. Physical Review Applied, 2019, 12(6): 064005

[271] Achard J, Silva F, Brinza O, . Coupled effect of nitrogen addition and surface temperature on the morphology and the kinetics of thick CVD diamond single crystals. Diamond and Related Materials, 2007, 16(4–7): 685–689

[272] Kalish R. Ion implantation in diamond for quantum information processing (QIP): doping and damaging. In: Prawer S, Aharonovich I, eds. Quantum Information Processing with Diamond: Principles and Applications. 1st ed. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, 2014, 36–67

[273] Rabeau J R, Reichart P, Tamanyan G, . Implantation of labeled single nitrogen vacancy centers in diamond using ¹⁵N. Applied Physics Letters, 2006, 88(2): 023113

[274] Meijer J, Burchard B, Domhan M, . Generation of single color centers by focused nitrogen implantation. Applied Physics Letters, 2005, 87(26): 261909

[275] Lühmann T, John R, Wunderlich R, . Coulomb-driven single defect engineering for scalable qubits and spin sensors in diamond. Nature Communications, 2019, 10(1): 4956

[276] de Oliveira F F, Antonov D, Wang Y, . Tailoring spin defects in diamond by lattice charging. Nature Communications, 2017, 8: 15409

[277] Osterkamp C, Scharpf J, Pezzagna S, . Increasing the creation yield of shallow single defects in diamond by surface plasma treatment. Applied Physics Letters, 2013, 103(19): 193118

[278] Reichart P, Datzmann G, Hauptner A, . Three-dimensional hydrogen microscopy in diamond. Science, 2004, 306(5701): 1537–1540

[279] Czelej K, Zemła M R, Spiewak P, . Quantum behavior of hydrogen-vacancy complexes in diamond. Physical Review B, 2018, 98(23): 235111

[280] Herbschleb E D, Kato H, Maruyama Y, . Ultra-long coherence times amongst room-temperature solid-state spins. Nature Communications, 2019, 10(1): 3766

[281] Dreau A, Maze J R, Lesik M, . High-resolution spectroscopy of single NV defects coupled with nearby ¹³C nuclear spins in diamond. Physical Review B, 2012, 85(13): 134107

[282] Mizuochi N, Neumann P, Rempp F, . Coherence of single spins coupled to a nuclear spin bath of varying density. Physical Review B, 2009, 80(4): 041201

[283] Zheng Y T, Li C M, Liu J L, . Diamond with nitrogen: states, control, and applications. Functional Diamond, 2021, 1(1): 63–82

[284] Markham M, Twitchen D. The diamond quantum revolution. Physics World, 2020, 33(4): 39–43

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press