Graphene: from synthesis to engineering to biosensor applications

Abstract

Graphene is a fascinating material of recent origin whose first isolation was being made possible through micromechanical cleavage of a graphite crystal. Owing to its fascinating properties, graphene has garnered significant attention in the research community for multiple applications. A number of methods have been employed for the synthesis of single-layer and multi-layer graphene. The extraordinary properties of graphene such as its Hall effect at room temperature, high surface area, tunable bandgap, high charge mobility and excellent electrical, conducting and thermal properties allow for the development of sensors of various types and also opened the doors for its use in nanoelectronics, supercapacitors and batteries. Biological aspects of graphene have also been investigated with particular emphasis on its toxicity and drug delivery. In this review, many of the salient aspects of graphene, such as from synthesis to its applications, primarily focusing on sensor applications which are of current interest, are covered.

Keywords

graphene / nanoelectronics / Hall effect / tunable bandgap / supercapacitors / sensors / catalysis

References

[1] Novoselov K S, Geim A K, Morozov S V, . Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science, 2004, 306(5696): 666–669

[2] Novoselov K S, Geim A K, Morozov S V, . Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene. Nature, 2005, 438(7065): 197–200

[3] Rao C N R, Sood A K, Subrahmanyam K S, . Graphene: the new two-dimensional nanomaterial. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2009, 48(42): 7752–7777

[4] Chen J H, Jang C, Adam S, . Charged-impurity scattering in graphene. Nature Physics, 2008, 4(5): 377–381

[5] Han M Y, Ozyilmaz B, Zhang Y, . Energy band-gap engineering of graphene nanoribbons. Physical Review Letters, 2007, 98(20): 206805 (4 pages)

[6] Nair R R, Blake P, Grigorenko A N, . Fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene. Science, 2008, 320(5881): 1308

[7] Lee C, Wei X, Kysar J W, . Measurement of the elastic properties and intrinsic strength of monolayer graphene. Science, 2008, 321(5887): 385–388

[8] Wang Y, Huang Y, Song Y, . Room-temperature ferromagnetism of graphene. Nano Letters, 2009, 9(1): 220–224

[9] Matte H S S R, Subrahmanyam K S, Rao C N R. Novel magnetic properties of graphene: Presence of both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic features and other aspects. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2009, 113(23): 9982–9985

[10] Peigney A, Laurent C, Flahaut E, . Specific surface area of carbon nanotubes and bundles of carbon nanotubes. Carbon, 2001, 39(4): 507–514

[11] Rao C N R, Sood A K, Voggu R, . Some novel attributes of graphene. The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2010, 1(2): 572–580

[12] Das B, Voggu R, Rout C S, . Changes in the electronic structure and properties of graphene induced by molecular charge-transfer. Chemical Communications, 2008, (41): 5155–5157

[13] Rao C N R, Voggu R. Charge-transfer with graphene and nanotubes. Materials Today, 2010, 13(9): 34–40

[14] Geim A K, Novoselov K S. The rise of graphene. Nature Materials, 2007, 6(3): 183–191

[15] Butler K T, Frost J M, Walsh A. Band alignment of the hybrid halide perovskites CH₃NH₃PbCl₃, CH₃NH₃PbBr₃ and CH₃NH₃PbI₃. Materials Horizons, 2015, 2(2): 228–231

[16] Son D R, Raghu A V, Reddy K R, . Compatibility of thermally reduced graphene with polyesters. Journal of Macromolecular Science Part B, 2016, 55(11): 1099–1110

[17] Hassan M, Reddy K R, Haque E, . High-yield aqueous phase exfoliation of graphene for facile nanocomposite synthesis via emulsion polymerization. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2013, 410: 43–51

[18] Reddy K R, Sin B C, Yoo C H, . A new one-step synthesis method for coating multi-walled carbon nanotubes with cuprous oxide nanoparticles. Scripta Materialia, 2008, 58(11): 1010–1013

[19] Cahill D G, Braun P V, Chen G, . Nanoscale thermal transport. II. 2003–2012. Applied Physics Reviews, 2014, 1: 011305

[20] Stenzel M H, Barner-Kowollik C, Davis T P. Formation of honeycomb-structured, porous films via breath figures with different polymer architectures. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry, 2006, 44(8): 2363–2375

[21] Choi S H, Kim D H, Raghu A V, . Properties of graphene/waterborne polyurethane nanocomposites cast from colloidal dispersion mixtures. Journal of Macromolecular Science Part B, 2012, 51(1): 197–207

[22] Hassan M, Reddy K R, Haque E, . Hierarchical assembly of graphene/polyaniline nanostructures to synthesize free-standing supercapacitor electrode. Composites Science and Technology, 2014, 98: 1–8

[23] Zhong Y J, Xie G Y, Sui G X, . Poly(ether ether ketone) composites reinforced by short carbon fibers and zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: mechanical properties and sliding wear behavior with water lubrication. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2011, 119: 1711–1720

[24] Reddy K R, Sin B C, Ryu K S, . In situ self-organization of carbon black-polyaniline composites from nanospheres to nanorods: Synthesis, morphology, structure and electrical conductivity. Synthetic Metals, 2009, 159(19–20): 1934–1939

[25] Reddy K R, Gomes V G, Hassan M. Carbon functionalized TiO₂ nanofibers for high efficiency photocatalysis. Materials Research Express, 2014, 1(1): 015012

[26] Lee Y R, Kim S C, Lee H, . Graphite oxides as effective fire retardants of epoxy resin. Macromolecular Research, 2011, 19(1): 66–71

[27] Reddy K R, Hassan M, Gomes V G. Hybrid nanostructures based on titanium dioxide for enhanced photocatalysis. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2015, 489: 1–16

[28] Khan M U, Reddy K R, Snguanwongchai T, . Polymer brush synthesis on surface modified carbon nanotubes via in situ emulsion polymerization. Colloid and Polymer Science, 2016, 294(10): 1599–1610

[29] Bolotin K I, Sikes K J, Jiang Z, . Ultrahigh electron mobility in suspended graphene. Solid State Communications, 2008, 146(9–10): 351–355

[30] Nair R R, Blake P, Grigorenko A N, . Fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene. Science, 2008, 320(5881): 1308

[31] Singh V, Joung D, Zhai L, . Graphene based materials: Past, present and future. Progress in Materials Science, 2011, 56(8): 1178–1271

[32] Zhang Y, Tan Y W, Stormer H L, . Experimental observation of the quantum Hall effect and Berry’s phase in graphene. Nature, 2005, 438(7065): 201–204

[33] Novoselov K S, Jiang D, Schedin F, . Two-dimensional atomic crystals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2005, 102(30): 10451–10453

[34] Novoselov K S, Jiang Z, Zhang Y, . Room-temperature quantum Hall effect in graphene. Science, 2007, 315(5817): 1379

[35] Novoselov K S, McCann E, Morozov S V, . Unconventional quantum Hall effect and Berry’s phase of 2p in bilayer graphene. Nature Physics, 2006, 2: 177–180

[36] Oostinga J B, Heersche H B, Liu X, . Gate-induced insulating state in bilayer graphene devices. Nature Materials, 2008, 7(2): 151–157

[37] Becerril H A, Mao J, Liu Z, . Evaluation of solution-processed reduced graphene oxide films as transparent conductors. ACS Nano, 2008, 2(3): 463–470

[38] Di Bartolomeo A. Graphene Schottky diodes: An experimental review of the rectifying graphene/semiconductor heterojunction. Physics Reports, 2016, 606: 1–58

[39] Bae S, Kim H, Lee Y, . Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes. Nature Nanotechnology, 2010, 5(8): 574–578

[40] Tong J, Muthee M, Chen S Y, . Antenna enhanced graphene THz emitter and detector. Nano Letters, 2015, 15(8): 5295–5301

[41] Sensale-Rodriguez B, Yan R, Kelly M M, . Broadband graphene terahertz modulators enabled by intraband transitions. Nature Communications, 2012, 3: 780

[42] Rothberg L J, Lovinger A J. Status of and prospects for organic electroluminescence. Journal of Materials Research, 1996, 11(12): 3174–3187

[43] Eda G, Lin Y Y, Mattevi C, . Blue photoluminescence from chemically derived graphene oxide. Advanced Materials, 2010, 22(4): 505–509

[44] Yu T, Ni Z, Du C, . Raman mapping investigation of graphene on transparent flexible substrate: The strain effect. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2008, 112(33): 12602–12605

[45] Ni Z H, Chen W, Fan X F, . Raman spectroscopy of epitaxial graphene on a SiC substrate. Physical Review B, 2008, 77: 11405

[46] Ni Z H, Wang H M, Ma Y, . Tunable stress and controlled thickness modification in graphene by annealing. ACS Nano, 2008, 2(5): 1033–1039

[47] Haldane F D M. Model for a quantum Hall effect without Landau levels: Condensed-matter realization of the “parity anomaly”. Physical Review Letters, 1988, 61(18): 2015–2018

[48] Klemens P G. Theory of thermal conduction in thin ceramic films. International Journal of Thermophysics, 2001, 22(1): 265–275

[49] Ghosh S, Calizo I, Teweldebrhan D, . Extremely high thermal conductivity of graphene: Prospects for thermal management applications in nanoelectronic circuits. Applied Physics Letters, 2008, 92: 151911 (3 pages)

[50] Novoselov K S, Castro Neto A H. Two-dimensional crystals-based heterostructures: materials with tailored properties. Physica Scripta, 2012, 146: 014006

[51] Hiura H, Ebbesen T W, Fujita J, . Role of sp³ defect structures in graphite and carbon nanotubes. Nature, 1994, 367(6459): 148–151

[52] Ebbesen T W, Hiura H. Graphene in 3-dimensions: Towards graphite origami. Advanced Materials, 1995, 7(6): 582–586

[53] Bernhardt T M, Kaiser B, Rademann K. Formation of superperiodic patterns on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite by manipulation of nanosized graphite sheets with the STM tip. Surface Science, 1998, 408(1–3): 86–94

[54] Atamny F, Spillecke O, Schlogl R. On the STM imaging contrast of graphite: towards a “true” atomic resolution. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 1999, 1(17): 4113–4118

[55] Lu X, Yu M, Huang H, . Tailoring graphite with the goal of achieving single sheets. Nanotechnology, 1999, 10(3): 269–272

[56] Roy H V, Kallinger C, Sattler K. Study of single and multiple foldings of graphitic sheets. Surface Science, 1998, 407(1–3): 1–6

[57] Dresselhaus M S, Dresselhaus G. Intercalation compounds of graphite. Advances in Physics, 1981, 30(2): 139–326

[58] Viculis L M, Mack J J, Mayer O M, . Intercalation and exfoliation routes to graphite nanoplatelets. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2005, 15(9): 974

[59] Rao K S, Senthilnathan J, Liu Y F, . Role of peroxide ions in formation of graphene nanosheets by electrochemical exfoliation of graphite. Scientific Reports, 2014, 4(1): 4237

[60] Hibino H, Kageshima H, Nagase M. Graphene growth on silicon carbide. NTT Technical Review, 2009, 615–617: 199–202

[61] Ciszewski M, Mianowski A. Survey of graphite oxidation methods using oxidizing mixtures in inorganic acids. Chemik, 2013, 67: 267–274

[62] Hummers W S Jr, Offeman R E. Preparation of graphitic oxide. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1958, 80(6): 1339

[63] Dreyer D R, Park S, Bielawski C W, . The chemistry of graphene oxide. Chemical Society Reviews, 2010, 39(1): 228–240

[64] Stankovich S, Dikin D A, Piner R D, . Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide. Carbon, 2007, 45(7): 1558–1565

[65] Shin H J, Kim K K, Benayad A, . Efficient reduction of graphite oxide by sodium borohydride and its effect on electrical conductance. Advanced Functional Materials, 2009, 19(12): 1987–1992

[66] Pham V H, Cuong T V, Nguyen-Phan T D, . One-step synthesis of superior dispersion of chemically converted graphene in organic solvents. Chemical Communications, 2010, 46(24): 4375–4377

[67] Zhou X, Zhang J, Wu H, . Reducing graphene oxide via hydroxylamine: A simple and efficient route to graphene. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2011, 115(24): 11957–11961

[68] Zhu C, Guo S, Fang Y, . Reducing sugar: new functional molecules for the green synthesis of graphene nanosheets. ACS Nano, 2010, 4(4): 2429–2437

[69] Zhang J, Yang H, Shen G, . Reduction of graphene oxide via L-ascorbic acid. Chemical Communications, 2010, 46(7): 1112–1114

[70] Wang X, Yang J, Park J, . Facile synthesis and characterization of graphene nanosheets. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2008, 112(22): 8192–8195

[71] Fan X, Peng W, Li Y, . Deoxygenation of exfoliated graphite oxide under alkaline conditions: a green route to graphene preparation. Advanced Materials, 2008, 20(23): 4490–4493

[72] Amarnath C A, Hong C E, Kim N H, . Efficient synthesis of graphene sheets using pyrrole as a reducing agent. Carbon, 2011, 49(11): 3497–3502

[73] Guo H L, Wang X F, Qian Q Y, . A green approach to the synthesis of graphene nanosheets. ACS Nano, 2009, 3(9): 2653–2659

[74] Sundaram R S, Gómez-Navarro C, Balasubramanian K, . Electrochemical modification of graphene. Advanced Materials, 2008, 20(16): 3050–3053

[75] Compton O C, Jain B, Dikin D A, . Chemically active reduced graphene oxide with tunable C/O ratios. ACS Nano, 2011, 5(6): 4380–4391

[76] Kim K S, Zhao Y, Jang H, . Large-scale pattern growth of graphene films for stretchable transparent electrodes. Nature, 2009, 457(7230): 706–710

[77] Kwon S Y, Ciobanu C V, Petrova V, . Growth of semiconducting graphene on palladium. Nano Letters, 2009, 9(12): 3985–3990

[78] Sutter P W, Flege J I, Sutter E A. Epitaxial graphene on ruthenium. Nature Materials, 2008, 7(5): 406–411

[79] Coraux J, N’Diaye A T, Busse C, . Structural coherency of graphene on Ir(111). Nano Letters, 2008, 8(2): 565–570

[80] Li X, Cai W, An J, . Large-area synthesis of high-quality and uniform graphene films on copper foils. Science, 2009, 324(5932): 1312–1314

[81] Reina A, Jia X, Ho J, . Large area, few-layer graphene films on arbitrary substrates by chemical vapor deposition. Nano Letters, 2009, 9(1): 30–35

[82] Wang J J, Zhu M Y, Outlaw R A, . Free-standing subnanometer graphite sheets. Applied Physics Letters, 2004, 85(7): 1265–1267

[83] Wang J, Zhu M, Outlaw R A, . Synthesis of carbon nanosheets by inductively coupled radio-frequency plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Carbon, 2004, 42(14): 2867–2872

[84] Zhu M, Wang J, Holloway B C, . A mechanism for carbon nanosheet formation. Carbon, 2007, 45(11): 2229–2234

[85] Cano-Márquez A G, Rodríguez-Macías F J, Campos-Delgado J, . Ex-MWNTs: graphene sheets and ribbons produced by lithium intercalation and exfoliation of carbon nanotubes. Nano Letters, 2009, 9(4): 1527–1533

[86] Jiao L, Zhang L, Wang X, . Narrow graphene nanoribbons from carbon nanotubes. Nature, 2009, 458(7240): 877–880

[87] Kosynkin D V, Higginbotham A L, Sinitskii A, . Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature, 2009, 458(7240): 872–876

[88] Soldano C, Mahmood A, Dujardin E. Production, properties and potential of graphene. Carbon, 2010, 48(8): 2127–2150

[89] Sahoo N G, Bao H, Pan Y, . Functionalized carbon nanomaterials as nanocarriers for loading and delivery of a poorly water-soluble anticancer drug: a comparative study. Chemical Communications, 2011, 47(18): 5235–5237

[90] Pan Y, Bao H, Sahoo N G, . Water-soluble poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-graphene sheets synthesized via click chemistry for drug delivery. Advanced Functional Materials, 2011, 21(14): 2754–2763

[91] Liu Z, Robinson J T, Sun X, . PEGylated nanographene oxide for delivery of water-insoluble cancer drugs. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2008, 130(33): 10876–10877

[92] Sun X, Liu Z, Welsher K, . Nano-graphene oxide for cellular imaging and drug delivery. Nano Research, 2008, 1(3): 203–212

[93] Feng L, Zhang S, Liu Z. Graphene based gene transfection. Nanoscale, 2011, 3(3): 1252–1257

[94] Chen B, Liu M, Zhang L, . Polyethylenimine-functionalized graphene oxide as an efficient gene delivery vector. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2011, 21(21): 7736

[95] Bao H, Pan Y, Ping Y, . Chitosan-functionalized graphene oxide as a nanocarrier for drug and gene delivery. Small, 2011, 7(11): 1569–1578

[96] Zhang L, Lu Z, Zhao Q, . Enhanced chemotherapy efficacy by sequential delivery of siRNA and anticancer drugs using PEI-grafted graphene oxide. Small, 2011, 7(4): 460–464

[97] Yang K, Zhang S, Zhang G, . Graphene in mice: ultrahigh in vivo tumor uptake and efficient photothermal therapy. Nano Letters, 2010, 10(9): 3318–3323

[98] Tian B, Wang C, Zhang S, . Photothermally enhanced photodynamic therapy delivered by nano-graphene oxide. ACS Nano, 2011, 5(9): 7000–7009

[99] Shen A, Li D, Cai X, . Multifunctional nanocomposite based on graphene oxide for in vitro hepatocarcinoma diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 2012, 100A(9): 2499–2506

[100] Kim H, Namgung R, Singha K, . Graphene oxide-polyethylenimine nanoconstruct as a gene delivery vector and bioimaging tool. Bioconjugate Chemistry, 2011, 22(12): 2558–2567

[101] Min K, Jung J Y, Han T H, . Graphene electrodes for artificial muscles. Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, 2011, 539(1): 260–265

[102] Cao Y C, Wei W, Liu J, . The preparation of graphene reinforced poly(vinyl alcohol) antibacterial nanocomposite thin film. International Journal of Polymer Science, 2015: 407043 (7 pages)

[103] Zhao Y, Arowo M, Wu W, . Polyaniline/graphene nanocomposites synthesized by in situ high gravity chemical oxidative polymerization for supercapacitor. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2015, 25: 280–287

[104] Lee T, Yun T, Park B, . Hybrid multilayer thin film supercapacitor of graphene nanosheets with polyaniline: importance of establishing intimate electronic contact through nanoscale blending. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2012, 22(39): 21092

[105] Lee J K, Song S, Kim B. Functionalized graphene sheets-epoxy based nanocomposite for cryotank composite application. Polymer Composites, 2012, 33(8): 1263–1273

[106] Chen L Y, Konishi H, Fehrenbacher A, . Novel nanoprocessing route for bulk graphene nanoplatelets reinforced metal matrix nanocomposites. Scripta Materialia, 2012, 67(1): 29–32

[107] Wang J, Li Z, Fan G, . Reinforcement with graphene nanosheets in aluminum matrix composites. Scripta Materialia, 2012, 66(8): 594–597

[108] Zhou C, Szpunar J A, Cui X. Synthesis of Ni/graphene nanocomposite for hydrogen storage. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2016, 8(24): 15232–15241

[109] Gómez-Navarro C, Burghard M, Kern K. Elastic properties of chemically derived single graphene sheets. Nano Letters, 2008, 8(7): 2045–2049

[110] Koller A. Structure and Properties of Ceramics. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, 1994

[111] Sternitzke M. Structural ceramic nanocomposites. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 1997, 17(9): 1061–1082

[112] Choi S M, Awaji H. Nanocomposites — a new material design concept. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2005, 6(1): 2–10

[113] Wu P, Lv H, Peng T, . Nano conductive ceramic wedged graphene composites as highly efficient metal supports for oxygen reduction. Scientific Reports, 2014, 4(1): 3968

[114] Eda G, Chhowalla M. Graphene-based composite thin films for electronics. Nano Letters, 2009, 9(2): 814–818

[115] Mohammad-Rezaei R, Razmi H, Jabbari M. Graphene ceramic composite as a new kind of surface-renewable electrode: application to the electroanalysis of ascorbic acid. Mikrochimica Acta, 2014, 181(15–16): 1879–1885

[116] Gutierrez-Gonzalez C F, Smirnov A, Centeno A, . Wear behavior of graphene/alumina composite. Ceramics International, 2015, 41(6): 7434–7438

[117] Zhou M, Lin T, Huang F, . Highly conductive porous graphene/ceramic composites for heat transfer and thermal energy storage. Advanced Functional Materials, 2013, 23(18): 2263–2269

[118] Zhang Y, Ali S F, Dervishi E, . Cytotoxicity effects of graphene and single-wall carbon nanotubes in neural phaeochromocytoma-derived PC12 cells. ACS Nano, 2010, 4(6): 3181–3186

[119] Fan H, Wang L, Zhao K, . Fabrication, mechanical properties, and biocompatibility of graphene-reinforced chitosan composites. Biomacromolecules, 2010, 11(9): 2345–2351

[120] Xu S, Zhang Z, Chu M. Long-term toxicity of reduced graphene oxide nanosheets: Effects on female mouse reproductive ability and offspring development. Biomaterials, 2015, 54: 188–200

[121] Jennifer M, Maciej W. Nanoparticle technology as a double-edged sword: cytotoxic, genotoxic and epigenetic effects on living cells. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 2013, 4(01): 53–63

[122] Wu W, Yan L, Wu Q, . Evaluation of the toxicity of graphene oxide exposure to the eye. Nanotoxicology, 2016, 10(9): 1329–1340

[123] Boruta R,Olejnik R, Slobodian P, . Different kinds of carbon-based material for resistive gas sensing. Key Engineeing Materials, 2013, 543: 269–272

[124] Li J, Zhang Y, Yang T, . DNA biosensor by self-assembly of carbon nanotubes and DNA to detect riboflavin. Materials Science and Engineering C, 2009, 29(8): 2360–2364

[125] Du J, Yue R, Yao Z, . Nonenzymatic uric acid electrochemical sensor based on graphene-modified carbon fiber electrode. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 2013, 419(2): 94–99

[126] Sheng Z H, Zheng X Q, Xu J Y, . Electrochemical sensor based on nitrogen doped graphene: simultaneous determination of ascorbic acid, dopamine and uric acid. Biosensors & Bioelectronics, 2012, 34(1): 125–131

[127] Papa H, Gaillard M, Gonzalez L, . Fabrication of functionalized carbon nanotube buckypaper electrodes for application in glucose biosensors. Biosensors, 2014, 4(4): 449–460

[128] Sun C L, Lee H H, Yang J M, . The simultaneous electrochemical detection of ascorbic acid, dopamine, and uric acid using graphene/size-selected Pt nanocomposites. Biosensors & Bioelectronics, 2011, 26(8): 3450–3455

[129] Guo M, Chen J, Li J, . Carbon nanotubes-based amperometric cholesterol biosensor fabricated through layer-by-layer technique. Electroanalysis, 2004, 16(23): 1992–1998

[130] Li L, Lu H, Deng L. A sensitive NADH and ethanol biosensor based on graphene–Au nanorods nanocomposites. Talanta, 2013, 113: 1–6

[131] Habibi B, Jahanbakhshi M, Pournaghi-Azar M H. Simultaneous determination of acetaminophen and dopamine using SWCNT modified carbon-ceramic electrode by differential pulse voltammetry. Electrochimica Acta, 2011, 56(7): 2888–2894

[132] Liu Y, Dong X, Chen P. Biological and chemical sensors based on graphene materials. Chemical Society Reviews, 2012, 41(6): 2283–2307

[133] Goenka S, Sant V, Sant S. Graphene-based nanomaterials for drug delivery and tissue engineering. Journal of Controlled Release, 2014, 173: 75–88

[134] Bo Z, Mao S, Han Z J, . Emerging energy and environmental applications of vertically-oriented graphenes. Chemical Society Reviews, 2015, 44(8): 2108–2121

[135] Lu G, Ocola L E, Chen J. Reduced graphene oxide for room-temperature gas sensors. Nanotechnology, 2009, 20(44): 445502

[136] Lu G, Huebner K L, Ocola L E, . Gas sensors based on tin oxide nanoparticles synthesized from a mini-arc plasma source. Journal of Nanomaterials, 2006, (1): 20

[137] Lei N, Li P, Xue W, . Simple graphene chemiresistors as pH sensors: fabrication and characterization. Measurement Science & Technology, 2011, 22(10): 107002

[138] Bartolomeo A D, Luongo G, Giubileo F, . Hybrid graphene/silicon Schottky photodiode with intrinsic gating effect. 2D Materials, 2017, 4(2): 025075

[139] Zhang W, Huang J K, Chen C H, . High-gain phototransistors based on a CVD MoS₂ monolayer. Advanced Materials, 2013, 25(25): 3456–3461

[140] Di Bartolomeo A, Genovese L, Foller T, . Electrical transport and persistent photoconductivity in monolayer MoS₂ phototransistors. Nanotechnology, 2017, 28(21): 214002

[141] Koppens F H L, Mueller T, Avouris P, . Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems. Nature Nanotechnology, 2014, 9(10): 780–793

[142] Antony J, Grimme S. Structures and interaction energies of stacked graphene-nucleobase complexes. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2008, 10(19): 2722–2729

[143] Gowtham S,Scheicher R H, Ahuja R, . Physisorption of nucleobases on graphene: Density-functional calculations. Physical Review B, 2007, 76(3): 033401

[144] Lin L, Liu Y, Tang L, . Electrochemical DNA sensor by the assembly of graphene and DNA-conjugated gold nanoparticles with silver enhancement strategy. Analyst, 2011, 136(22): 4732–4737

[145] Xu C, Xu B, Gu Y, . Graphene-based electrodes for electrochemical energy storage. Energy & Environmental Science, 2013, 6(5): 1388

[146] Sun W, Hou F, Gong S, . Direct electrochemistry and electrocatalysis of hemoglobin on three-dimensional graphene modified carbon ionic liquid electrode. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2015, 219: 331–337

[147] Shan C, Yang H, Song J, . Direct electrochemistry of glucose oxidase and biosensing for glucose based on graphene. Analytical Chemistry, 2009, 81(6): 2378–2382

[148] Zhou M, Zhai Y, Dong S. Electrochemical sensing and biosensing platform based on chemically reduced graphene oxide. Analytical Chemistry, 2009, 81(14): 5603–5613

[149] Dey R S, Raj C R. Redox-functionalized graphene oxide architecture for the development of amperometric biosensing platform. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2013, 5(11): 4791–4798

[150] Cao S, Zhang L, Chai Y, . Electrochemistry of cholesterol biosensor based on a novel Pt-Pd bimetallic nanoparticle decorated graphene catalyst. Talanta, 2013, 109: 167–172

[151] Li Z, Xie C, Wang J, . Direct electrochemistry of cholesterol oxidase immobilized on chitosan–graphene and cholesterol sensing. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2015, 208: 505–511

[152] Ahn J H, Choi S J, Han J W, . Double-gate nanowire field effect transistor for a biosensor. Nano Letters, 2010, 10(8): 2934–2938

[153] Ohno Y, Maehashi K, Yamashiro Y, . Electrolyte-gated graphene field-effect transistors for detecting pH and protein adsorption. Nano Letters, 2009, 9(9): 3318–3322

[154] Mohanty N, Berry V. Graphene-based single-bacterium resolution biodevice and DNA transistor: interfacing graphene derivatives with nanoscale and microscale biocomponents. Nano Letters, 2008, 8(12): 4469–4476

[155] Mao S, Yu K, Chang J, . Direct growth of vertically-oriented graphene for field-effect transistor biosensor. Scientific Reports, 2013, 3(1): 1696

[156] Stine R, Robinson J T, Sheehan P E, . Real-time DNA detection using reduced graphene oxide field effect transistors. Advanced Materials, 2010, 22(46): 5297–5300

[157] Bonanni A, Loo A H, Pumera M. Graphene for impedimetric biosensing. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2012, 37: 12–21

[158] Bonanni A, Pumera M. Graphene platform for hairpin-DNA-based impedimetric genosensing. ACS Nano, 2011, 5(3): 2356–2361

[159] Wang J, Kwak Y, Lee I Y, . Highly responsive hydrogen gas sensing by partially reduced graphite oxide thin films at room temperature. Carbon, 2012, 50(11): 4061–4067

[160] Mao S, Cui S, Lu G, . Tuning gas-sensing properties of reduced graphene oxide using tin oxide nanocrystals. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2012, 22(22): 11009

[161] Sudibya H G, He Q, Zhang H, . Electrical detection of metal ions using field-effect transistors based on micropatterned reduced graphene oxide films. ACS Nano, 2011, 5(3): 1990–1994

[162] Zhou H, Wang X, Yu P, . Sensitive and selective voltammetric measurement of Hg²⁺ by rational covalent functionalization of graphene oxide with cysteamine. Analyst, 2012, 137(2): 305–308

[163] Li S J, Qian C, Wang K, . Application of thermally reduced graphene oxide modified electrode in simultaneous determination of dihydroxybenzene isomers. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2012, 174: 441–448

[164] Wang Y, Zhang S, Du D, . Self assembly of acetylcholinesterase on a gold nanoparticles–graphene nanosheet hybrid for organophosphate pesticide detection using polyelectrolyte as a linker. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2011, 21(14): 5319–5325

[165] Zhang L, Zhang A, Du D, . Biosensor based on Prussian blue nanocubes/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite for detection of organophosphorus pesticides. Nanoscale, 2012, 4(15): 4674–4679

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature