Progress in nanostructured photoanodes for dye-sensitized solar cells

Abstract

Solar cells represent a principal energy technology to convert light into electricity. Commercial solar cells are at present predominately produced by single- or multi-crystalline silicon wafers. The main drawback to silicon-based solar cells, however, is high material and manufacturing costs. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have attracted much attention during recent years because of the low production cost and other advantages. The photoanode (working electrode) plays a key role in determining the performance of DSSCs. In particular, nanostructured photoanodes with a large surface area, high electron transfer efficiency, and low electron recombination facilitate to prepare DSSCs with high energy conversion efficiency. In this review article, we summarize recent progress in the development of novel photoanodes for DSSCs. Effect of semiconductor material (e.g. TiO₂, ZnO, SnO₂, N₂O₅, and nano carbon), preparation, morphology and structure (e.g. nanoparticles, nanorods, nanofibers, nanotubes, fiber/particle composites, and hierarchical structure) on photovoltaic performance of DSSCs is described. The possibility of replacing silicon-based solar cells with DSSCs is discussed.

Keywords

dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) / nanostructure / photoanode

References

[1] Backus C E. Solar Cells. New York: IEEE Press, 1976, 511

[2] Calogero G, Marco G D. Red sicilian orange and purple eggplant fruits as natural sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 2008, 92(11): 1341–1346

[3] Wang A, Zhao J, Green M A. 24% efficient silicon solar cells. Applied Physics Letters, 1990, 57(6): 602–604

[4] Ali N, Hussain A, Ahmed R, . Advances in nanostructured thin film materials for solar cell applications. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 59: 726–737

[5] Takahashi K, Konagai M. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1986, 225

[6] Galloni R. Amorphous silicon solar cells. Renewable Energy, 1996, 8(1–4): 400–404

[7] Tian J, Cao G. Design, fabrication and modification of metal oxide semiconductor for improving conversion efficiency of excitonic solar cells. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2016.02.016 (in press)

[8] Green M A, Emery K, Hishikawa Y, . Solar cell efficiency tables (version 36). Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 2010, 18(5): 346–352

[9] O'Regan B, Gratzel M. A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO₂ films. Nature, 1991, 353(6346): 737–740

[10] Grätzel M. Dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, 2003, 4(2): 145–153

[11] Ye M, Chen C, Lv M, . Facile and effective synthesis of hierarchical TiO₂ spheres for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanoscale, 2013, 5(14): 6577–6583

[12] Miao X, Pan K, Liao Y, . Controlled synthesis of mesoporous anatase TiO₂ microspheres as scattering layer to enhance photoelectrical conversion efficiency. Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2013, 1(34): 9853

[13] McCune M, Zhang W, Deng Y. High efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells based on three-dimensional multilayered ZnO nanowire arrays with “caterpillar-like” structure. Nano Letters, 2012, 12(7): 3656–3662

[14] Chen L Y, Yin Y T. Hierarchically assembled ZnO nanoparticles on high diffusion coefficient ZnO nanowire arrays for high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanoscale, 2013, 5(5): 1777–1780

[15] Wang H, Li B, Gao J, . SnO₂ hollow nanospheres enclosed by single crystalline nanoparticles for highly efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. CrystEngComm, 2012, 14(16): 5177–5181

[16] Chen J, Li C, Xu F, . Hollow SnO₂ microspheres for high-efficiency bilayered dye sensitized solar cell. RSC Advances, 2012, 2(19): 7384–7387

[17] Burschka J, Pellet N, Moon S J, . Sequential deposition as a route to high-performance perovskite-sensitized solar cells. Nature, 2013, 499(7458): 316–319

[18] Li D, Xia Y. Fabrication of titania nanofibers by electrospinning. Nano Letters, 2003, 3(4): 555–560

[19] Zhu H, Tao J, Wang T, . Growth of branched rutile TiO₂ nanorod arrays on F-doped tin oxide substrate. Applied Surface Science, 2011, 257(24): 10494–10498

[20] Chang S S, Shih C W, Chen C D, . The shape transition of gold nanorods. Langmuir, 1999, 15(3): 701–709

[21] Gao J, Bender C M, Murphy C J. Dependence of the gold nanorod aspect ratio on the nature of the directing surfactant in aqueous solution. Langmuir, 2003, 19(21): 9065–9070

[22] Li Y D, Liao H W, Ding Y, . Nonaqueous synthesis of CdS nanorod semiconductor. Chemistry of Materials, 1998, 10(9): 2301–2303

[23] Li Y D, Liao H W, Ding Y, . Solvothermal elemental direct reaction to CdE (E= S, Se, Te) semiconductor nanorod. Inorganic Chemistry, 1999, 38(7): 1382–1387

[24] Hafez H, Lan Z, Li Q, . High efficiency dye-sensitized solar cell based on novel TiO₂ nanorod/nanoparticle bilayer electrode. Nanotechnology Science and Applications, 2010, 3: 45–51

[25] Sedach P A, Gordon T J, Sayed S Y, . Solution growth of anatase TiO₂ nanowires from transparent conducting glass substrates. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2010, 20(24): 5063–5069

[26] Huang Q, Zhou G, Fang L, . TiO₂ nanorod arrays grown from a mixed acid medium for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy & Environmental Science, 2011, 4(6): 2145–2151

[27] Liu B, Aydil E S. Growth of oriented single-crystalline rutile TiO₂ nanorods on transparent conducting substrates for dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2009, 131(11): 3985–3990

[28] Lv M, Zheng D, Ye M, . Optimized porous rutile TiO₂ nanorod arrays for enhancing the efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy & Environmental Science, 2013, 6(5): 1615–1622

[29] Mukherjee K, Teng T, Jose R, . Electron transport in electrospun TiO₂ nanofiber dye-sensitized solar cells. Applied Physics Letters, 2009, 95(1): 012101 (3 pages)

[30] Chen H, Di J, Wang N, . Fabrication of hierarchically porous inorganic nanofibers by a general microemulsion electrospinning approach. Small, 2011, 7(13): 1779–1783

[31] Lee B H, Song M Y, Jang S Y, . Charge transport characteristics of high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells based on electrospun TiO₂ nanorod photoelectrodes. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2009, 113(51): 21453–21457

[32] Song M Y, Kim D K, Ihn K J, . Electrospun TiO₂ electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanotechnology, 2004, 15(12): 1861–1865

[33] Song M Y, Kim D K, Jo S M, . Enhancement of the photocurrent generation in dye-sensitized solar cell based on electrospun TiO₂ electrode by surface treatment. Synthetic Metals, 2005, 155(3): 635–638

[34] Zhu R, Jiang C, Liu X, . Improved adhesion of interconnected TiO₂ nanofiber network on conductive substrate and its application in polymer photovoltaic devices. Applied Physics Letters, 2008, 93(1): 013102 (3 pages)

[35] Ito S, Murakami T N, Comte P, . Fabrication of thin film dye sensitized solar cells with solar to electric power conversion efficiency over 10%. Thin Solid Films, 2008, 516(14): 4613–4619

[36] Liu X, Fang J, Gao M, . Improvement of light harvesting and device performance of dye-sensitized solar cells using rod-like nanocrystal TiO₂ overlay coating on TiO₂ nanoparticle working electrode. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2015, 151: 330–336

[37] Roy P, Kim D, Lee K, . TiO₂ nanotubes and their application in dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanoscale, 2010, 2(1): 45–59

[38] Jennings J R, Ghicov A, Peter L M, . Dye-sensitized solar cells based on oriented TiO₂ nanotube arrays: transport, trapping, and transfer of electrons. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2008, 130(40): 13364–13372

[39] Xie Y, Zhou L, Huang H, . Microstructure promoted photosensitization activity of dye-titania/titanium composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2008, 39(4): 690–696

[40] Park H, Kim W R, Jeong H T, . Fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cells by transplanting highly ordered TiO₂ nanotube arrays. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 2011, 95(1): 184–189

[41] Teo W E, Ramakrishna S. Electrospun nanofibers as a platform for multifunctional, hierarchically organized nanocomposite. Composites Science and Technology, 2009, 69(11–12): 1804–1817

[42] Li Y, Gong J, Deng Y. Hierarchical structured ZnO nanorods on ZnO nanofibers and their photoresponse to UV and visible lights. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 2010, 158(2): 176–182

[43] Sun C H, Wang N X, Zhou S Y, . Preparation of self-supporting hierarchical nanostructured anatase/rutile composite TiO₂ film. Chemical Communications, 2008, (28): 3293–3295

[44] Su C C, Hung W C, Lin C J, . The preparation of composite TiO₂ electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, 2010, 57: 1131–1135

[45] Tan B, Wu Y. Dye-sensitized solar cells based on anatase TiO₂ nanoparticle/nanowire composites. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2006, 110(32): 15932–15938

[46] Mekprasart W, Suphankij S, Tangcharoen T, . Modification of dye-sensitized solar cell working electrode using TiO₂ nanoparticle/N-doped TiO₂ nanofiber composites. physica status solidi (a), 2014, 211(8): 1745–1751

[47] Bai Y, Yu H, Li Z, . In situ growth of a ZnO nanowire network within a TiO₂ nanoparticle film for enhanced dye-sensitized solar cell performance. Advanced Materials, 2012, 24(43): 5850–5856

[48] Hu A, Cheng C, Li X, . Two novel hierarchical homogeneous nanoarchitectures of TiO₂ nanorods branched and P25-coated TiO₂ nanotube arrays and their photocurrent performances. Nanoscale Research Letters, 2011, 6(1): 91 (6 pages)

[49] Zhang Q J, Sun C H, Yan J, . Perpendicular rutile nanosheets on anatase nanofibers: Heterostructured TiO₂ nanocomposites via a mild solvothermal method. Solid State Sciences, 2010, 12(7): 1274–1277

[50] Lin C M, Chang Y C, Yao J, . Multi-step hydrothermally synthesized TiO₂ nanoforests and its application to dye-sensitized solar cells. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2012, 135(2–3): 723–727

[51] Ko S H, Lee D, Kang H W, . Nanoforest of hydrothermally grown hierarchical ZnO nanowires for a high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cell. Nano Letters, 2011, 11(2): 666–671

[52] Ho W, Yu J C, Lee S. Synthesis of hierarchical nanoporous F-doped TiO₂ spheres with visible light photocatalytic activity. Chemical Communications, 2006, (10): 1115–1117

[53] Ye M, Zheng D, Lv M, . Hierarchically structured nanotubes for highly efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. Advanced Materials, 2013, 25(22): 3039–3044

[54] Kim Y J, Lee M H, Kim H J, . Formation of highly efficient dye-sensitized solar cells by hierarchical pore generation with nanoporous TiO₂ spheres. Advanced Materials, 2009, 21(36): 3668–3673

[55] Tu L, Pan H, Xie H, . Study on the fabrication and photovoltaic property of TiO₂ mesoporous microspheres. Solid State Sciences, 2012, 14(5): 616–621

[56] Fan K, Peng T, Chen J, . A simple preparation method for quasi-solid-state flexible dye-sensitized solar cells by using sea urchin-like anatase TiO₂ microspheres. Journal of Power Sources, 2013, 222: 38–44

[57] Wu D, Wang Y, Dong H, . Hierarchical TiO₂ microspheres comprised of anatase nanospindles for improved electron transport in dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanoscale, 2013, 5(1): 324–330

[58] Zhang H, Han Y, Liu X, . Anatase TiO₂ microspheres with exposed mirror-like plane {001} facets for high performance dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Chemical Communications, 2010, 46(44): 8395–8397

[59] Yan K, Qiu Y, Chen W, . A double layered photoanode made of highly crystalline TiO₂ nanooctahedra and agglutinated mesoporous TiO₂ microspheres for high efficiency dye sensitized solar cells. Energy & Environmental Science, 2011, 4(6): 2168–2176

[60] Liao J Y, Lei B X, Kuang D B, . Tri-functional hierarchical TiO₂ spheres consisting of anatase nanorods and nanoparticles for high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy & Environmental Science, 2011, 4(10): 4079–4085

[61] Peng J, Tseng C, Vittal R, . Mesoporous anatase-TiO₂ spheres consisting of nanosheets of exposed (001)-facets for [Co(byp)₃]^2+/3+ based dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano Energy, 2016, 22: 136–148

[62] Zhang Z, Li X, Wang C, . ZnO hollow nanofibers: Fabrication from facile single capillary electrospinning and applications in gas sensors. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2009, 113(45): 19397–19403

[63] Kim I D, Hong J M, Lee B H, . Dye-sensitized solar cells using network structure of electrospun ZnO nanofiber mats. Applied Physics Letters, 2007, 91(16): 163109 (3 pages)

[64] Sun X W, Chen J, Song J L, . Ligand capping effect for dye solar cells with a CdSe quantum dot sensitized ZnO nanorod photoanode. Optics Express, 2010, 18(2): 1296–1301

[65] Quintana M, Edvinsson T, Hagfeldt A, . Comparison of dye-sensitized ZnO and TiO₂ solar cells: Studies of charge transport and carrier lifetime. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2007, 111(2): 1035–1041

[66] Park K, Zhang Q, Garcia B B, . Effect of an ultrathin TiO₂ layer coated on submicrometer-sized ZnO nanocrystallite aggregates by atomic layer deposition on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. Advanced Materials, 2010, 22(21): 2329–2332

[67] Fei C, Tian J, Wang Y, . Improved charge generation and collection in dye-sensitized solar cells with modified photoanode surface. Nano Energy, 2014, 10: 353–362

[68] Le Viet A, Jose R, Reddy M V, . Nb₂O₅ photoelectrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells: Choice of the polymorph. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2010, 114(49): 21795–21800

[69] Palomares E, Clifford J N, Haque S A, . Slow charge recombination in dye-sensitised solar cells (DSSC) using Al₂O₃ coated nanoporous TiO₂ films. Chemical Communications, 2002, (14): 1464–1465

[70] Palomares E, Clifford J N, Haque S A, . Control of charge recombination dynamics in dye sensitized solar cells by the use of conformally deposited metal oxide blocking layers. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2003, 125(2): 475–482

[71] Niu H, Zhang S, Ma Q, . Dye-sensitized solar cells based on flower-shaped α-Fe₂O₃ as a photoanode and reduced graphene oxide-polyaniline composite as a counter electrode. RSC Advances, 2013, 3(38): 17228–17235

[72] Wang J, Jin E M, Park J Y, . Increases in solar conversion efficiencies of the ZrO₂ nanofiber-doped TiO₂ photoelectrode for dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanoscale Research Letters, 2012, 7(1): 98 (4 pages)

[73] Yu H, Bai Y, Zong X, . Cubic CeO₂ nanoparticles as mirror-like scattering layers for efficient light harvesting in dye-sensitized solar cells. Chemical Communications, 2012, 48(59): 7386–7388

[74] Li W, Jin G, Hu H, . Phosphotungstic acid and WO₃ incorporated TiO₂ thin films as novel photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells. Electrochimica Acta, 2015, 153: 499–507

[75] Jiang Q, Gao J, Yi L, . Enhanced performance of dye-sensitized solar cells based on P25/Ta₂O₅ composite films. Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing, 2016, 122: 442

[76] Li Y, Guo W, Hao H, . Enhancing photoelectrical performance of dye-sensitized solar cell by doping SrTiO₃:Sm³⁺@SiO₂ core–shell nanoparticles in the photoanode. Electrochimica Acta, 2015, 173: 656–664

[77] Zhang H, He B, Tang Q. Enhanced light harvesting of TiO₂/La_0.95Tb_0.05PO₄ photoanodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2016, 173: 340–346

[78] Hod I, Shalom M, Tachan Z, . SrTiO₃ recombination-inhibiting barrier layer for type II dye-sensitized solar cells. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2010, 114(21): 10015–10018

[79] Tan B, Toman E, Li Y, . Zinc stannate (Zn₂SnO₄) dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2007, 129(14): 4162–4163

[80] Huang X W, Shen P, Feng X M, . Efficient TiO₂ nanoparticles/nanorods composite electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano, 2012, 7(2): 1250010 (9 pages)

[81] Lee T Y, Alegaonkar P S, Yoo J B. Fabrication of dye sensitized solar cell using TiO₂ coated carbon nanotubes. Thin Solid Films, 2007, 515(12): 5131–5135

[82] Xiang Z, Zhou X, Wan G, . Improving energy conversion efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells by modifying TiO₂ photoanodes with nitrogen-reduced graphene oxide. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2014, 2(5): 1234–1240

[83] Fang X, Li M, Guo K, . Improved properties of dye-sensitized solar cells by incorporation of graphene into the photoelectrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 2012, 65: 174–178

[84] Yen C Y, Lin Y F, Liao S H, . Preparation and properties of a carbon nanotube-based nanocomposite photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanotechnology, 2008, 19(37): 375305

[85] Kongkanand A, Domínguez R M, Kamat P V. Single wall carbon nanotube scaffolds for photoelectrochemical solar cells. Capture and transport of photogenerated electrons. Nano Letters, 2007, 7(3): 676–680

[86] Xue Y, Liu J, Chen H, . Nitrogen-doped graphene foams as metal-free counter electrodes in high-performance dye-sensitized solar cells. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2012, 51(48): 12124–12127

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2016 Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg