Physiological effects of weightlessness: countermeasure system development for a long-term Chinese manned spaceflight

Abstract

The Chinese space station will be built around 2020. As a national space laboratory, it will offer unique opportunities for studying the physiological effects of weightlessness and the efficacy of the countermeasures against such effects. In this paper, we described the development of countermeasure systems in the Chinese space program. To emphasize the need of the Chinese space program to implement its own program for developing countermeasures, we reviewed the literature on the negative physiological effects of weightlessness, the challenges of completing missions, the development of countermeasure devices, the establishment of countermeasure programs, and the efficacy of the countermeasure techniques in American and Russian manned spaceflights. In addition, a brief overview was provided on the Chinese research and development on countermeasures to discuss the current status and goals of the development of countermeasures against physiological problems associated with weightlessness.

Keywords

countermeasure / physiological effects of weightlessness / effect evaluation / long-term manned spaceflight

References

[1] Meck JV, Dreyer SA, Warren LE. Long-duration head-down bed rest: project overview, vital signs, and fluid balance. Aviat Space Environ Med 2009; 80(5 Suppl): A1–A8

[2] Marshall-Goebel K, Mulder E, Bershad E, Laing C, Eklund A, Malm J, Stern C, Rittweger J. Intracranial and intraocular pressure during various degrees of head-down tilt. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2017; 88(1): 10–16

[3] Zange J, Müller K, Schuber M, Wackerhage H, Hoffmann U, Günther RW, Adam G, Neuerburg JM, Sinitsyn VE, Bacharev AO, Belichenko OI. Changes in calf muscle performance, energy metabolism, and muscle volume caused by long-term stay on space station MIR. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18(Suppl 4): S308– S309

[4] Loenneke JP, Wilson JM, Bemben MG. Potential exercise countermeasures to attenuate skeletal muscle deterioration in space. J Trainology 2012; 1(1): 1–5

[5] Hackney KJ, Scott JM, Hanson AM, English KL, Downs ME, Ploutz-Snyder LL. The astronaut-athlete: optimizing human performance in space. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29(12): 3531–3545

[6] Genc KO, Mandes VE, Cavanagh PR. Gravity replacement during running in simulated microgravity. Aviat Space Environ Med 2006; 77(11): 1117–1124

[7] Meck JV, Reyes CJ, Perez SA, Goldberger AL, Ziegler MG. Marked exacerbation of orthostatic intolerance after long- vs. short-duration spaceflight in veteran astronauts. Psychosom Med 2001; 63(6): 865–873

[8] Tipton CM. ACSM’s Advanced Exercise Physiology. Baltimore, New York: American College of Sports Medicine, 2006

[9] Buckey JC. Space Physiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006

[10] Moore AD Jr, Downs ME, Lee SMC, Feiveson AH, Knudsen P, Ploutz-Snyder L. Peak exercise oxygen uptake during and following long-duration spaceflight. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 117(3): 231–238

[11] Heer M, Paloski WH. Space motion sickness: incidence, etiology, and countermeasures. Auton Neurosci 2006; 129(1-2): 77–79

[12] Macias BR, Liu JH, Grande-Gutierrez N, Hargens AR. Intraocular and intracranial pressures during head-down tilt with lower body negative pressure. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(1): 3–7

[13] Cowell SA, Stocks JM, Evans DG, Simonson SR, Greenleaf JE. The exercise and environmental physiology of extravehicular activity. Aviat Space Environ Med 2002; 73(1): 54–67

[14] Human Research Program Human Health Countermeasures Element. Risk of Reduced Physical Performance Capabilities due to Reduced Aerobic Capacity. Huston: NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2015

[15] White O, Clément G, Fortrat JO, Pavy-LeTraon A, Thonnard JL, Blanc S, Wuyts FL, Paloski WH. Towards human exploration of space: the THESEUS review series on neurophysiology research priorities. NPJ Microgravity 2016; 2:16023

[16] Convertino VA. Consequences of cardiovascular adaptation to spaceflight: implications for the use of pharmacological countermeasures. Gravit Space Biol Bull 2005; 18(2): 59–69

[17] Ullom-Minnich P. Prevention of osteoporosis and fractures. Am Fam Physician 1999; 60(1): 194–202

[18] Lang T, LeBlanc A, Evans H, Lu Y, Genant H, Yu A. Cortical and trabecular bone mineral loss from the spine and hip in long-duration spaceflight. J Bone Miner Res 2004; 19(6): 1006–1012

[19] Lang TF. What do we know about fracture risk in long-duration spaceflight? J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2006; 6(4): 319–321

[20] Rittweger J, Gunga HC, Felsenberg D, Kirsch KA. Muscle and bone-aging and space. J Gravit Physiol 1999; 6(1): 133–136

[21] Androjna C, McCabe NP, Cavanagh PR, Midura RJ. Effects of spaceflight and skeletal unloading on bone fracture healing. Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab 2012; 10(2): 61–70

[22] Hawley JA, Hargreaves M, Joyner MJ, Zierath JR. Integrative biology of exercise. Cell 2014; 159(4): 738–749

[23] Cavanagh PR, Licata AA, Rice AJ. Exercise and pharmacological countermeasures for bone loss during long-duration space flight. Gravit Space Biol Bull 2005; 18(2): 39–58

[24] Petersen N, Jaekel P, Rosenberger A, Weber T, Scott J, Castrucci F, Lambrecht G, Ploutz-Snyder L, Damann V, Kozlovskaya I, Mester J. Exercise in space: the European Space Agency approach to in-flight exercise countermeasures for long-duration missions on ISS. Extrem Physiol Med 2016; 5(1): 9

[25] Smith SM, Heer MA, Shackelford LC, Sibonga JD, Ploutz-Snyder L, Zwart SR. Benefits for bone from resistance exercise and nutrition in long-duration spaceflight: evidence from biochemistry and densitometry. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27(9): 1896–1906

[26] Korth DW. Exercise countermeasure hardware evolution on ISS: the first decade. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A7–A13

[27] Yarmanova EN, Kozlovskaya IB, Khimoroda NN, Fomina EV. Evolution of Russian microgravity countermeasures. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A32–A37

[28] Kozlovskaya IB, Yarmanova EN, Yegorov AD, Stepantsov VI, Fomina EV, Tomilovaskaya ES. Russian countermeasure system for adverse effects of microgravity on long-duration ISS flights. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A24–A31

[29] Heer M, Baecker N, Frings-Meuthen P, Graf S, Zwart SR, Biolo G, Smith SM. Effects of high-protein intake on bone turnover in long-term bed rest in women. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42(5): 537–546

[30] Hales NW, Yamauchi K, Alicea A, Sundaresan A, Pellis NR, Kulkarni AD. A countermeasure to ameliorate immune dysfunction in in vitro simulated microgravity environment: role of cellular nucleotide nutrition. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2002; 38(4): 213–217

[31] Task Group on Research on the International Space Station Space Studies Board Division on Engineering and Physical Science. Factors affecting the utilization of the International Space Station for research in the biological and physical sciences. Washington D. C.: National Research Council of the National Academes and National Academy of Public Administration, 2003: 29–36

[32] Beyene N. The art of space flight exercise hardware: design and implementation. In: Space 2004 Conference and Exhibit. Sep 28–30, 2004; San Diego, California, USA

[33] Novotny SC, Perusek GP, Rice AJ, Comstock BA, Bansal A, Cavanagh PR. A harness for enhanced comfort and loading during treadmill exercise in space. Acta Astronaut 2013; 89: 205–214

[34] Genc KO, Gopalakrishnan R, Kuklis MM, Maender CC, Rice AJ, Bowersox KD, Cavanagh PR. Foot forces during exercise on the International Space Station. J Biomech 2010; 43(15): 3020–3027

[35] Hayes JC, Loerch L, Davis-Street J, Haralson C, Sams C. Current ISS exercise countermeasure: where are we now? In: 77th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Aerospace. May 14–18, 2008; Orlando, Florida, USA

[36] McCrory JL, Lemmon DR, Sommer HJ, Prout B, Smith D, Korth DW, Lucero J, Greenisen M, Moore J, Kozlovskaya I, Pestov I, Stepansov V, Miyakinchenko Y, Cavanagh PR. Evaluation of a treadmill with vibration isolation and stabilization (TVIS) for use on the International Space Station. J Appl Biomech 1999; 15(3): 292–302

[37] Belyaev MY, Babkin EV, Ryabukha SB, Ryazantsev AV. Microperturbations on the International Space Station during physical exercises of the crew. Cosm Res 2011; 49(2): 160–174

[38] Cavanagh PR, Genc KO, Gopalakrishnan R, Kuklis MM, Maender CC, Rice AJ. Foot forces during typical days on the international space station. J Biomech 2010; 43(11): 2182–2188

[39] Gosseye TP, Willems PA, Heglund NC. Biomechanical analysis of running in weightlessness on a treadmill equipped with a subject loading system. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 110(4): 709–728

[40] Carlson DL, Durrani M, Redilla CL. Design of a resistive exercise device for use on the space shuttle. Dissertation Austin: University of Texas, 1992

[41] Amonette WE, Bentley JR, Lee SMC, Loehr JA, Schneider S. Ground reaction force and mechanical differences between the interim resistive exercise device (iRED) and smith machine while performing a squat. Huston: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2004

[42] English KL, Loehr JA, Lee SMC, Laughlin MA, Hagan RD. Reliability of strength testing using the advanced resistive exercise device and free weights. Huston: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2008

[43] Lamoreaux CD, Landeck ME. Mechanism development, testing, and lessons learned for the advanced resistive exercise device. In: Proceedings of the 38th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium. May 17–19, 2006; Hampton, Virginia, USA. 317–330

[44] Niebuhr JH, Hagen RA. Development of the vibration isolation system for the advanced resistive exercise device. In: Proceedings of the 41st Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium. May 16–18, 2012; La Cañada Flintridge, California, USA. 67–80

[45] Loehr JA, Guilliams ME, Petersen N, Hirsch N, Kawashima S, Ohshima H. Physical training for long-duration spaceflight. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A14–A23

[46] Ploutz-Snyder L. Integrated resistance and aerobic training study – sprint. Huston: NASA Human Research Program Informed Consent Briefing, 2010

[47] Matsuo T, Ohkawara K, Seino S, Shimojo N, Yamada S, Ohshima H, Tanaka K, Mukai C. An exercise protocol designed to control energy expenditure for long-term space missions. Aviat Space Environ Med 2012; 83(8): 783–789

[48] Hayes J. The first decade of ISS exercise: lessons learned on expeditions 1–25. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A1–A6

[49] Schneider S. Exercise in space: a holistic approach for the benefit of human health on earth. New York: Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland, 2016

[50] Webster L, Chen JG, Flores L, Tan S. Exercise countermeasure protocol management expert system. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 1993; 39(3-4): 217–223

[51] Convertino VA. Exercise as a countermeasure for physiological adaptation to prolonged spaceflight. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28(8): 999–1014

[52] Convertino VA, Sandler H. Exercise countermeasures for spaceflight. Acta Astronaut 1995; 35(4-5): 253–270

[53] Rao AV, Phadke AV, Patil PB, Joshi AR. Comparison of non-exercise test and step test in estimation of aerobic capacity (VO_2max) in young adults. Natl J Physiol Pharm Pharmacol 2014; 4(3): 218–220

[54] Wier LT, Ayers GW, Jackson AS, Rossum AC, Poston WSP, Foreyt JP. Determining the amount of physical activity needed for long-term weight control. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25(5): 613–621

[55] Feiveson AH. Quantitative assessment of countermeasure efficacy for long-term space missions. In: Presentation to the Institute of Medicine Committee on strategies for small number participant clinical research trials. Sep 28, 2000; Washington DC, USA

[56] Coolahan JE, Feldman AB, Murphy SP. Simulation of integrated physiology based on an astronaut exercise protocol. Johns Hopkins APL Tech Dig 2004; 25(3): 201–213

[57] Thompson WK, Caldwell EE, Newby NJ, Humphreys BT, Lewandowski BE, Pennline JA, Ploutz-Snyder L, Mulugeta L. Integrated biomechanical modeling of lower body exercises on the advanced resistive exercise device (ARED) using LifeMOD®. In: 44th International Conference on Environmental Systems. Jul 13–17, 2014; Tucson, Arizona, USA

[58] Abram SR, Hodnett BL, Summers RL, Coleman TG, Hester RL. Quantitative Circulatory Physiology: an integrative mathematical model of human physiology for medical education. Adv Physiol Educ 2007; 31(2): 202–210

[59] Hester RL, Brown AJ, Husband L, Iliescu R, Pruett D, Summers R, Coleman TG. HumMod: a modeling environment for the simulation of integrative human physiology. Front Physiol 2011; 2: 12

[60] Thompson WK, Gallo CA, Crentsil L, Lewandowski BE, Humphreys BT, DeWitt JK, Fincke RS, Mulugeta L. Digital astronaut project biomechanical models—biomechanical modeling of squat, single-leg squat and heel raise exercise on the hybrid ultimate lifting kit (HULK). Huston: Jonson Space Center, 2015

[61] Summers R, Coleman T, Meck J. Development of the digital astronaut project for the analysis of the mechanisms of physiologic adaptation to microgravity: validation of the cardiovascular system module. Acta Astronaut 2008; 63(7-10): 758–762

[62] Jiang C, Jiang S, Li J, Yao Y, Wu X, Sun X. Effect of extremity cuffs as a countermeasure against the cardiovascular deconditioning during 21 d head-down bedrest. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing) (Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 1999; 12(5): 364–367 (in Chinese)

[63] Liu Y, Zhen J, Wu B, Zhao D, Sun H, Pan Z, Li K, Wu P, Gu Z, Zeng Y, Liu G, Geng J, Sun X. Effects of exercise training during 30 d -6° head-down bed rest on lower limb muscle atrophy and function changes. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing) (Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 2009; 22(4): 240–246 (in Chinese)

[64] Liu B, Zhu Y, Li Z, Chen W, Wang L, Li Y, Bai Y. Effects of 30 d -6° head down bed rest on male aerobic capacity and its protection strategy. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing)( Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 2014; 27(4): 235–240 (in Chinese)

[65] Tan C, Cao Y, Zhang L, Yuan M, Wang H, Niu D, Zhao Q, Li Z, Chen W, Yang H, Wang L, Li Y, Bai Y. Effects of 15 d -6° head-down bed rest on female orthostatic tolerance. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing)( Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 2011; 24(4): 246–252 (in Chinese)

[66] Nicogossian AE, Williams RS, Huntoon CL, Doarn CR, Polk JD, Schneider VS. Space Physiology and Medicine: from evidence to practice. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2016

[67] Arezes P. Advances in safety management and human factors. In: Proceedings of the AHFE 2016 International Conference on Safety Management and Human Factors. Jul 27–31, 2016; Walt Disney World, Florida, USA. 2016. 392–393

[68] Perusek G, Owings T, Ryder J, Savina M, Sheehan C, Davis BL. Validation of improved comfort and loading with the center for space medicine harness. Station Development Test Objective: Harness SDTO PI final report. Cleveland: NASA GLEN Research Center, 2011

[69] Tan C, Li Z, Chen S,Chen X. Investigation of gait pattern in simulated weightlessness. A Sponsored Supplement to Science — Human Performance in Space: Advancing Astronautics Research in China. 2014. 20–21

[70] Reinertson RC, Nelson VA, Aunon SM, Schlegel TT, Lindgren KN, Kerstman EL, Arya M, Paloski WH. Medical monitoring during the NASA artificial gravity-bed rest pilot study. J Gravit Physiol 2007; 14(1): 9–13

[71] Schmidt MA, Goodwin TJ, Pelligra R. Incorporation of omics analyses into artificial gravity research for space exploration countermeasure development. Metabolomics 2016; 12(2): 36

[72] Clément GR, Bukley AP, Paloski WH. Artificial gravity as a countermeasure for mitigating physiological deconditioning during long-duration space missions. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9: 92

[73] White RJ, Leonard JI, Rummel JA, Leach CS. A systems approach to the physiology of weightlessness. J Med Syst 1982; 6(4): 343–358

[74] Shi H, Li Y, Tang Z, Zhong C, Fan Q, Gao J, Liu J, Mi T, Zhao S, Li Y. Impact of 60 days of 6° head down bed rest on cardiopulmonary function, and the effects of Taikong Yangxin Prescription as a countermeasure. Chin J Integr Med 2014; 20(9): 654–660

[75] Yuan M, Alameddine A, Coupé M, Navasiolava NM, Li Y, Gauquelin-Koch G, Bai Y, Jiang S, Wan Y, Wang J, Li Y, Custaud MA. Effect of Chinese herbal medicine on vascular functions during 60-day head-down bed rest. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115(9): 1975–1983

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature