Glow-in-the-dark: Exploring the opportunities and challenges of bioluminescent plankton as a natural light source

Abstract

Bioluminescent plankton are marine organisms capable of emitting visible light through chemical reactions in their bodies. This unique biochemical trait is attributed to a luciferin-luciferase reaction, which produces a striking blue light. This fascinating phenomenon, often referred to as the “blue tears” effect, has become a major attraction for tourist attractions in many countries. Since their discovery, most investigations related to these marine organisms have primarily focused on the fields of biology, ecology, oceanography, and microbiology. However, there has been limited to almost no study of their potential applications in the area of energy or lighting. This paper provides viewpoints on the opportunities for using these marine organisms and their light-emitting characteristics as an energy-efficient and environmentally friendly lighting solution, rather than just as a tourist attraction. Additionally, it addresses the challenges associated with sustaining the growth of bioluminescent plankton collected from the marine environment, the importance of establishing suitable protocols for in-house cultivation, challenges in stimulating the light-production at desired time, constraint imposed by the circadian rhythm, the toxicity of certain bioluminescent plankton, and the capacity of their luminous intensity.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

biodiversity / bioluminescent plankton / energy / light source / carbon neutrality / sustainability

“Blue tears” is a captivating nighttime phenomenon in which the surface of the seawater emits a blue color glow (Fig.1). This blue light typically appears when the plankton are stimulated by stress or motion, such as waves, or when triggered by chemical cues in a laboratory setting. The phenomenon is most prominent during high tide and when the sky is darker. This glow-in-the-dark effect has become a major attraction in several tourist destinations worldwide, including in Malaysia (Kuala Selangor, Bagan Datuk, Sembilan Island, Teluk Nipah in Pangkor Island, Lang Tengah Island, Mantanani Island, and Tusan Beach) [1], China (Pingtan Islands and Matsu Island) [2,4], Maldives (Vaadhoo Island) [3], among others. Plankton are widely found in Malaysia’s ecosystem [5,6]. Despite the fact that “blue tears” effect is visually captivating, it is imperative to note that its presence indicates that the seawater is contaminated by blooms of bioluminescent phytoplankton, a type of marine microorganism that is able to emit visible blue light via chemical reactions in their bodies [7,8]. The luminous intensity is affected by several factors, including temperature and salinity [9,10]. Over tens of thousands of plankton cells may exist per liter of seawater during the “blue tears” blooming period [8]. However, such blooms also raise concern about the potential negative effects on water quality. Despite this, the captivating feature of plankton could significantly affect behavioral patterns and ecosystem dynamics [11].

In addition to plankton, the bioluminescence effect has been observed in a variety of organisms, including glowing jellyfish, fungi, beetles, springtails, and fireflies [11,13–17]. Notably, approximately 80% of luminous organisms are found in the oceans, primarily among deep-living genera [18,19]. This unique bioluminescence is ascribed to a luciferin–luciferase reaction within these living organisms, which produces blue light emission at a maximum wavelength of 480 nm (λ_max = 480 nm) [7,20,21]. Specifically, the luciferase enzyme oxidizes the luciferin molecules to reach an excited state, resulting in a byproduct called oxyluciferin. The oxyluciferin emits a photon as it returns to the ground state, producing the fascinating blue light effect [22]. This emitted light can be further spectrally filtered by surrounding tissues or cellular contents [17]. Another pathway for bioluminescence involves photoproteins found in certain organisms, which are stable luciferin-luciferase complexes that produce light upon binding with cofactors such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ [11,23,24]. Bioluminescence serves significant physiologic purposes for the marine organisms, including mating, nutrient recycling, concealment, and defense mechanisms [25,26]. Interestingly, the glow produced by some bioluminescent plankton is not persistent, and its intensity may be affected by various factors, such as prior exposure to illumination, nutritional state, and/or diurnal rhythm controlled by an endogenous circadian clock [27,28]. The unique circadian rhythm (a physical or behavioral changes in an organism over a 24-h cycle) of bioluminescent plankton can be observed through variations in intensity of the emitted light during the day (nearly negligible) compared the night (brighter) [21,29]. This rhythm is influenced by luciferase expression during dark periods and can be further manipulated through photo-entrainment.

Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder were among the earliest authors to report on the bioluminescence phenomena [27,30]. However, research into the mechanisms behind this living light, as well as its industrial, commercial, medical, and pharmaceutical potential, has only gained momentum in recent years [18,30]. Most applications of the bioluminescent plankton focus on toxicity assessment, utilizing changes in luminescence, such as reduced light emission or increased flashing frequency, when the bioluminescent plankton are exposed to toxic substances [7,31–33]. For instance, studies have demonstrated that the bioluminescence of Gonyaulax polyedra (now known as Lingulodinium polyedra) is influenced by the presence of Pb²⁺ and Cu²⁺ in a dose-dependent manner, making it a potential tool for detecting such heavy metal content in water [33]. In the biochemical or biomedical fields, bioluminescence is utilized for visualization, imaging, control of biochemical processes, biosensing, detection of biomolecules, and bioassays [7,25,34]. In addition, we see an opportunity to harness this living light as a potential light source, inspired by the concept of bottled fireflies for lighting. This idea evolves filling a glass tube with the bioluminescent plankton to create natural illumination. This area of research is relatively new and still in its infancy. Based on the keyword (biolumines*) AND (plankton) a search through the website of lens (as of 16th March 2024) yielded a total of 992 relevant scholarly works recorded since 1952. Interestingly, the majority of the reported works fall within the fields of biology (687 documents), ecology (308 documents), bioluminescence (212 documents), oceanography (206 documents), and microbiology (202 documents) (see Fig.2 in which the database indicates that most of the reported work associated with this keyword falls within the fields of biology, ecology, bioluminescence, oceanography, microbiology, and bacteria. However, there is a notable lack of scholarly work focused on utilizing bioluminescent plankton for energy or lighting applications). Despite that, there is limited research focused on energy or lighting applications. This data trend highlights the need to elucidate the contributions of bioluminescent plankton to biology, ecology, and oceanography, which should remain a priority before pursuing applied research. Despite this, the lack of studies in the area of energy or lighting may reflect a limited understanding of this potential, as well as concerns about the technological and economic challenges involved.

Recent research has begun venturing into innovative methods of harvesting energy from plankton [35,36]. There are many more unanswered questions regarding the conversion of the living light from bioluminescent plankton into light source for humans. Notably, a 250 mL culture containing a mixture of bioluminescent plankton, such as Ceratium, Ceratocorys, Lingulodinium, Pyrocystis, and Pyrodinium may produce a brightness of 1335 lm, comparable to that of a 100-W incandescent lamp (1380 lm) [37]. Unlike traditional incandescent lights or light emitting diodes (LEDs), which require electricity to operate, bioluminescent plankton-powered lamps can provide illumination with a high likelihood of being independent of electrical sources. In contrast to solar-powered lighting solutions, bioluminescent technology may eliminate the need for extensive electrical components and wiring, thereby reducing the risk of lifespan shortening due to electrical wear and tear. In fact, degradation and failure of the internal electrical circuit have been significant limitations of solar panels [38]. Additionally, it was reported that unlike ordinary light, which suffers from energy loss via heat, bioluminescent light is produced through the efficient conversion of chemical reactions to visible light, resulting in significantly less energy being lost as heat [39]. Specifically, the chemical reactions involved in bioluminescence produce cold light, without the heat associated with combustion or incandescence [40]. Consequently, the efficiency of light emissions from bioluminescent phenomenon can be in orders of magnitude higher than that of incandescent lamps [39]. These advantages provide a sustainable alternative for an eco-friendly light source, aligning with efforts to mitigate climate change. Bioluminescent technology may serve as a promising alternative in an era of rising energy demand, particularly as conventional fossil fuel-powered electricity is known for significant emissions of hazardous gases [41,42].

Utilizing bioluminescent plankton as a light source for human applications has several challenges. The first challenge lies in isolating the bioluminescent plankton from marine organisms (e.g., bacteria, fish and squid samples) and maintaining their growth. This requires a detailed procedure to extract the luminescent colonies from the organ of the organism, followed by further sub-cultivation to achieve pure culture. Second, it is essential to establish a suitable protocol for in-house cultivation of the bioluminescent plankton to produce sufficient number of cells for the intended lighting application. To the author’s knowledge, developing in-house cultivation techniques for these organisms is still in its early stages. Third, unlike certain bioluminescent bacterial cultures that can produce continuous light under proper conditions [43], bioluminescent plankton emit light according to their circadian rhythm and availability of luciferase. Consequently, establishing a consistent light-on and light-off cycle within a desired timeframe can be challenging and necessitates constant stimulation through agitation. Fourth, while some bioluminescent plankton are non-toxic and have been commercially sold as toys or science kits, the toxicity of certain bioluminescent plankton remains a significant concern due to potential detrimental effects on human health [44,45]. Hence, it is essential to identify both toxic and non-toxic strains in order to develop a safe light source. To leverage the sustainability and feasibility of using bioluminescent plankton for this new application, another complex problem to resolve is the varying lifecycle and lifespan of the plankton, which typically ranges from days to weeks depending on species and culture conditions [46,47]. Lastly, optimizing luminous intensity is another crucial factor. Studies have shown that the bioluminescence capacity may vary from 2 × 10⁴ photos/cell to 6 × 10¹⁰ photos/cell, depending on the species of dinoflagellates [20]. Here, the challenge lies in how to concentrate and optimize the luminous intensity.

In conclusion, bridging the technical gaps is essential for the successful proof-of-concept and large-scale utilization of bioluminescent plankton as a natural and eco-friendly light source. Despite the aforementioned challenges, leveraging bioluminescent plankton as a new light source, particularly given that bioluminescent dinoflagellates are found worldwide, holds significant potential for further exploration in alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. In the long term, developing sustainable and smart culture systems that allow for real-time monitoring and automation to adjust culture conditions is crucial for the large-scale commercialization of this technology. For a more advanced stages in realizing this technology, the extraction of luminescent substances from bioluminescent plankton should be pursued, as has been done with other organisms [48,49]. Additionally, exploring the expression of the plankton luciferase in mammalian cells through genetic engineering could provide valuable insights [50].

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