Selective preparation for biofuels and high value chemicals based on biochar catalysts

Abstract

The reuse of biomass wastes is crucial toward today’s energy and environmental crisis, among which, biomass-based biochar as catalysts for biofuel and high value chemical production is one of the most clean and economical solutions. In this paper, the recent advances in biofuels and high chemicals for selective production based on biochar catalysts from different biomass wastes are critically summarized. The topics mainly include the modification of biochar catalysts, the preparation of energy products, and the mechanisms of other high-value products. Suitable biochar catalysts can enhance the yield of biofuels and higher-value chemicals. Especially, the feedstock and reaction conditions of biochar catalyst, which affect the efficiency of energy products, have been the focus of recent attentions. Mechanism studies based on biochar catalysts will be helpful to the controlled products. Therefore, the design and advancement of the biochar catalyst based on mechanism research will be beneficial to increase biofuels and the conversion efficiency of chemicals into biomass. The advanced design of biochar catalysts and optimization of operational conditions based on the biomass properties are vital for the selective production of high-value chemicals and biofuels. This paper identifies the latest preparation for energy products and other high-value chemicals based on biochar catalysts progresses and offers insights into improving the yield of high selectivity for products as well as the high recyclability and low toxicity to the environment in future applications.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

biomass / biochar catalysts / biofuels / high chemicals

References

[1] Pang S. Advances in thermochemical conversion of woody biomass to energy, fuels and chemicals. Biotechnology Advances, 2019, 37(4): 589–597

[2] Bridgwater A V, Meier D, Radlein D. An overview of fast pyrolysis of biomass. Organic Geochemistry, 1999, 30: 1479–1493

[3] Chen Z, Wang M, Jiang E. . Pyrolysis of torrefied biomass. Trends in Biotechnology, 2018, 36(12): 1287–1298

[4] Patel S, Kundu S, Halder P. . A critical literature review on biosolids to biochar: An alternative biosolids management option. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 2020, 19(4): 807–841

[5] Kabir G, Hameed B H. Recent progress on catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass to high-grade bio-oil and bio-chemicals. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2017, 70: 945–967

[6] Li S, Li S, Wang C. . Catalytic effects of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate on the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass: Selective production of furfural and levoglucosenone. Fuel Processing Technology, 2020, 209: 106525

[7] Kim M, Fernando J F S, Li Z. . Ultra-stable sodium ion storage of biomass porous carbon derived from sugarcane. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022, 445: 136344

[8] Velusamy K, Devanand J, Senthil Kumar P. . A review on nano-catalysts and biochar-based catalysts for biofuel production. Fuel, 2021, 306: 121632

[9] Zhou X, Zhu Y, Niu Q. . New notion of biochar: A review on the mechanism of biochar applications in advanced oxidation processes. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 416: 129027

[10] Kim M, Firestein K L, Fernando J F S. . Strategic design of Fe and N co-doped hierarchically porous carbon as superior ORR catalyst: From the perspective of nanoarchitectonics. Chemical Science (Cambridge), 2022, 13(36): 10836–10845

[11] Afolabi A T F, Kechagiopoulos P N, Liu Y. . Kinetic features of ethanol steam reforming and decomposition using a biochar-supported Ni catalyst. Fuel Processing Technology, 2021, 212: 106622

[12] Tao W, Zhang P, Li H. . Generation mechanism of persistent free radicals in lignocellulose-derived biochar: Roles of reducible carbonyls. Environmental Science & Technology, 2022, 56(15): 10638–10645

[13] Kim M, Lim H, Xu X. . Sorghum biomass-derived porous carbon electrodes for capacitive deionization and energy storage. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 2021, 312: 110757

[14] Ren J, Liu Y L. Direct conversion of syngas produced from steam reforming of toluene into methane over a Ni/biochar catalyst. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2021, 9(33): 11212–11222

[15] Boggula R R, Fischer D, Casaretto R. . Methanation potential: Suitable catalyst and optimized process conditions for upgrading biogas to reach gas grid requirements. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2020, 133: 105447

[16] Yue X, Chen D, Luo J. . Direct synthesis of methane-rich gas from reed biomass pyrolysis volatiles over its biochar-supported Ni catalysts. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2021, 154: 106250

[17] Wang Y, Shao Y, Zhang L. . Co-presence of hydrophilic and hydrophobic sites in Ni/biochar catalyst for enhancing the hydrogenation activity. Fuel, 2021, 293: 120426

[18] González-Castao M, Morales C, Miguel J C N D. . Are Ni/ and Ni₅Fe₁/biochar catalysts suitable for synthetic natural gas production? A comparison with γ-Al₂O₃ supported catalysts. Green Energy & Environment, 2023, 8(3): 744–756

[19] Quan C, Wang H, Gao N. Development of activated biochar supported Ni catalyst for enhancing toluene steam reforming. International Journal of Energy Research, 2020, 44(7): 5749–5764

[20] Li P, Lin K, Fang Z. . Enhanced nitrate removal by novel bimetallic Fe/Ni nanoparticles supported on biochar. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2017, 151: 21–33

[21] Wang Y, Zhang Z, Zhang S. . Steam reforming of acetic acid over Ni/biochar catalyst treated with HNO₃: Impacts of the treatment on surface properties and catalytic behaviors. Fuel, 2020, 278: 118341

[22] Lestinsky P, Zikmund Z, Grycova B. . Production of hydrogen over Ni/carbonaceous catalyst. Fuel, 2020, 278: 118398

[23] Ido A L, de Luna M D G, Ong D C. . Upgrading of scenedesmus obliquus oil to high-quality liquid-phase biofuel by nickel-impregnated biochar catalyst. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, 209: 1052–1060

[24] Xu B, Lu W, Sun Z. . High-quality oil and gas from pyrolysis of Powder River Basin coal catalyzed by an environmentally-friendly, inexpensive composite iron-sodium catalysts. Fuel Processing Technology, 2017, 167: 334–344

[25] Lu Q, Yuan S, Wang X. . Coking behavior and syngas composition of the char supported Fe catalyst of biomass pyrolysis volatiles reforming. Fuel, 2021, 298: 120830

[26] Álvarez M L, Gascó G, Palacios T. . Fe oxides-biochar composites produced by hydrothermal carbonization and pyrolysis of biomass waste. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2020, 151: 104893

[27] Xu Z, Zhou Y, Sun Z. . Understanding reactions and pore-forming mechanisms between waste cotton woven and FeCl₃ during the synthesis of magnetic activated carbon. Chemosphere, 2020, 241: 125120

[28] Zeng Z, Tian X, Wang Y. . Microwave-assisted catalytic pyrolysis of corn cobs with Fe-modified Choerospondias axillaris seed-based biochar catalyst for phenol-rich bio-oil. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2021, 159: 105306

[29] Xue N, Wang Z, Wu J. . Effect of equivalence ratio on the CO selectivity of Fe/Ca-based oxygen carriers in biomass char chemical looping gasification. Fuel, 2019, 252: 220–227

[30] Sun L, Wang Z, Chen L. . Improving the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons production from fast pyrolysis of biomass over Fe-modified ZSM-5 catalysts. International Journal of Energy Research, 2021, 45(4): 6032–6040

[31] Zhao B, Li H, Wang H. . Synergistic effects of metallic Fe and other homogeneous/heterogeneous catalysts in hydrothermal liquefaction of woody biomass. Renewable Energy, 2021, 176: 543–554

[32] Lu Q, Guo H, Zhou M. . Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons production from catalytic cracking of pine wood-derived pyrolytic vapors over Ce-Mo₂N/HZSM-5 catalyst. Science of the Total Environment, 2018, 634: 141–149

[33] Lalsare A D, Leonard B, Robinson B. . Self-regenerable carbon nanofiber supported Fe–Mo₂C catalyst for CH₄–CO₂ assisted reforming of biomass to hydrogen rich syngas. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2021, 282: 119537

[34] Hu Q, Shen Y, Chew J W. . Chemical looping gasification of biomass with Fe₂O₃/CaO as the oxygen carrier for hydrogen-enriched syngas production. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 379: 122346

[35] Wan Z, Sun Y, Tsang D C W. . Sustainable remediation with an electroactive biochar system: Mechanisms and perspectives. Green Chemistry, 2020, 22(9): 2688–2711

[36] Pierri L, Gemenetzi A, Mavrogiorgou A. . Biochar as supporting material for heterogeneous Mn(II) catalysts: Efficient olefins epoxidation with H₂O₂. Molecular Catalysis, 2020, 489: 110946

[37] Molnár Á, Papp A. Catalyst recycling—A survey of recent progress and current status. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 2017, 349: 1–65

[38] Nikkhah H, Tavasoli A, Jafarian S. Investigating the influence of acid washing pretreatment and Zn/activated biochar catalyst on thermal conversion of Cladophora glomerata to value-added bio-products. Energy Conversion and Management, 2020, 225: 113392

[39] Santos J L, Megías-Sayago C, Ivanova S. . Functionalized biochars as supports for Pd/C catalysts for efficient hydrogen production from formic acid. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2021, 282: 119615

[40] Cao L, Yu I K M, Tsang D C W. . Phosphoric acid-activated wood biochar for catalytic conversion of starch-rich food waste into glucose and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 267: 242–248

[41] Xiong X, Yu I K M, Chen S S. . Sulfonated biochar as acid catalyst for sugar hydrolysis and dehydration. Catalysis Today, 2018, 314: 52–61

[42] Cao L, Yu I K M, Chen S S. . Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from starch-rich food waste catalyzed by sulfonated biochar. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 252: 76–82

[43] Behera B, Selvam S M, Dey B. . Algal biodiesel production with engineered biochar as a heterogeneous solid acid catalyst. Bioresource Technology, 2020, 310: 123392

[44] Xie Q, Yang X, Xu K. . Conversion of biochar to sulfonated solid acid catalysts for spiramycin hydrolysis: Insights into the sulfonation process. Environmental Research, 2020, 188: 109887

[45] Kumar A, Kumar J, Bhaskar T. High surface area biochar from Sargassum tenerrimum as potential catalyst support for selective phenol hydrogenation. Environmental Research, 2020, 186: 109533

[46] Wang S, Shan R, Wang Y. . Synthesis of calcium materials in biochar matrix as a highly stable catalyst for biodiesel production. Renewable Energy, 2019, 130: 41–49

[47] Fan L, Lu X, Li S. . Dozens-fold improvement of biochar redox properties by KOH activation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022, 429: 132203

[48] Li M, Xu F, Li H. . Nitrogen-doped porous carbon materials: Promising catalysts or catalyst supports for heterogeneous hydrogenation and oxidation. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2016, 6(11): 3670–3693

[49] Wang X, Liu Y, Zhu L. . Biomass derived N-doped biochar as efficient catalyst supports for CO₂ methanation. Journal of CO₂ Utilization, 2019, 34: 733–741

[50] Avhad M, Flaud V, Burel L. . Porous carbon as catalyst support for CO oxidation: Impact of nitrogen doping. Carbon, 2020, 169: 297–306

[51] Chen L, Y C. . Fe and N co-doped carbon with High doping content of sulfur and nitrogen for efficient CO₂ electro-reduction. Journal of CO₂ Utilization, 2020, 42: 101316

[52] Shi Z, Yang W, Gu Y. . Metal-nitrogen-doped carbon materials as highly efficient catalysts: Progress and rational design. Advanced Science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany), 2020, 7(15): 2001069

[53] Sekhon S S, Kaur P, Park J S. From coconut shell biomass to oxygen reduction reaction catalyst: Tuning porosity and nitrogen doping. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2021, 147: 111173

[54] Song Y, Chen W, Zhao C. . Metal-free nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbon for electroreduction of CO₂ to ethanol. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2017, 56(36): 10840–10844

[55] Chen W, Fang Y, Li K. . Bamboo wastes catalytic pyrolysis with N-doped biochar catalyst for phenols products. Applied Energy, 2020, 260: 114242

[56] Wang J, Yu X, Shi C. . Iron and nitrogen co-doped mesoporous carbon-based heterogeneous catalysts for selective reduction of nitroarenes. Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis, 2019, 361(15): 3525–3531

[57] Cao P, Zhang H Y, Yin G. . Nitrogen doped carbon supported iron catalysts for highly selective production of 4,4′-diamino-2,2′-stilbenedisulfonic acid. Catalysis Communications, 2019, 132: 105822

[58] Kim M, Xin R, Earnshaw J. . MOF-derived nanoporous carbons with diverse tunable nanoarchitectures. Nature Protocols, 2022, 17(12): 2990–3027

[59] Knothe G, Razon L F. Biodiesel fuels. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2017, 58: 36–59

[60] Huang Z, Zhu L, Li A. . Renewable synthetic fuel: Turning carbon dioxide back into fuel. Frontiers in Energy, 2022, 16(2): 145–149

[61] Quah R V, Tan Y H, Mubarak N M. . Magnetic biochar derived from waste palm kernel shell for biodiesel production via sulfonation. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 2020, 118: 626–636

[62] Lim S, Yap C Y, Pang Y L. . Biodiesel synthesis from oil palm empty fruit bunch biochar derived heterogeneous solid catalyst using 4-benzenediazonium sulfonate. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2020, 390: 121532

[63] Guedes R E, Luna A S, Torres A R. Operating parameter for bio-oil production in biomass pyrolysis: A review. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2018, 129: 134–149

[64] Jeong K H, Choi D H, Lee D J. . CO₂-looping in pyrolysis of horse manure using CaCO₃. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 174: 616–624

[65] Yoon K, Jung J M, Cho D W. . Engineered biochar composite fabricated from red mud and lipid waste and synthesis of biodiesel using the composite. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2019, 366: 293–300

[66] Jung J M, Lee S R, Lee J. . Biodiesel synthesis using chicken manure biochar and waste cooking oil. Bioresource Technology, 2017, 244: 810–815

[67] Jung S, Kim M, Jung J M. . Valorization of swine manure biochar as a catalyst for transesterifying waste cooking oil into biodiesel. Environmental Pollution, 2020, 266: 115377

[68] Foroutan R, Mohammadi R, Razeghi J. . Biodiesel production from edible oils using algal biochar/CaO/K₂CO₃ as a heterogeneous and recyclable catalyst. Renewable Energy, 2021, 168: 1207–1216

[69] Borah M J, Devi A, Borah R. . Synthesis and application of Co doped ZnO as heterogeneous nanocatalyst for biodiesel production from non-edible oil. Renewable Energy, 2019, 133: 512–519

[70] Kataria J, Mohapatra S K, Kundu K. Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using heterogeneous catalysts and its operational characteristics on variable compression ratio CI engine. Journal of the Energy Institute, 2019, 92(2): 275–287

[71] Rabie A M, Shaban M, Abukhadra M R. . Diatomite supported by CaO/MgO nanocomposite as heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 2019, 279: 224–231

[72] Verma S, Nasir Baig R B, Nadagouda M N. . Visible light mediated upgrading of biomass to biofuel. Green Chemistry, 2016, 18(5): 1327–1331

[73] Gavahian M, Munekata P E S, Eş I. . Emerging techniques in bioethanol production: From distillation to waste valorization. Green Chemistry, 2019, 21(6): 1171–1185

[74] Wu P, Kang X, Wang W. . Assessment of coproduction of ethanol and methane from Pennisetum purpureum: Effects of pretreatment, process performance, and mass balance. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2021, 9(32): 10771–10784

[75] Djioleu A, Carrier D J. Effects of dilute acid pretreatment parameters on sugar production during biochemical conversion of switchgrass using a full factorial design. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2016, 4(8): 4124–4130

[76] Beig B, Riaz M, Raza Naqvi S. . Current challenges and innovative developments in pretreatment of lignocellulosic residues for biofuel production: A review. Fuel, 2021, 287: 119670

[77] Sun X, Atiyeh H K, Kumar A. . Biochar enhanced ethanol and butanol production by Clostridium carboxidivorans from syngas. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 265: 128–138

[78] Sun X, Atiyeh H K, Kumar A. . Enhanced ethanol production by Clostridium ragsdalei from syngas by incorporating biochar in the fermentation medium. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 247: 291–301

[79] Kyriakou M, Chatziiona V K, Costa C N. . Biowaste-based biochar: A new strategy for fermentative bioethanol overproduction via whole-cell immobilization. Applied Energy, 2019, 242: 480–491

[80] Xiao L, Lichtfouse E, Kumar P S. . Biochar promotes methane production during anaerobic digestion of organic waste. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2021, 19(5): 3557–3564

[81] Yuan H Y, Ding L J, Zama E F. . Biochar modulates methanogenesis through electron syntrophy of microorganisms with ethanol as a substrate. Environmental Science & Technology, 2018, 52(21): 12198–12207

[82] Xiao L, Liu F, Liu J. . Nano-Fe₃O₄ particles accelerating electromethanogenesis on an hour-long timescale in wetland soil. Environmental Science. Nano, 2018, 5(2): 436–445

[83] Li L, Fu C, Shen S. . Influence of Fe on electrocatalytic activity of iron-nitrogen-doped carbon materials toward oxygen reduction reaction. Frontiers in Energy, 2022, 16(5): 812–821

[84] Qin Y, Yin X, Xu X. . Specific surface area and electron donating capacity determine biochar’s role in methane production during anaerobic digestion. Bioresource Technology, 2020, 303: 122919

[85] Paranhos A G O, Adarme O F H, Barreto G F. . Methane production by co-digestion of poultry manure and lignocellulosic biomass: Kinetic and energy assessment. Bioresource Technology, 2020, 300: 122588

[86] Xu S, Wang C, Duan Y. . Impact of pyrochar and hydrochar derived from digestate on the co-digestion of sewage sludge and swine manure. Bioresource Technology, 2020, 314: 123730

[87] Yang H J, Yang Z M, Xu X H. . Increasing the methane production rate of hydrogenotrophic methanogens using biochar as a biocarrier. Bioresource Technology, 2020, 302: 122829

[88] Li L, Yan K, Chen J. . Fe-rich biomass derived char for microwave-assisted methane reforming with carbon dioxide. Science of the Total Environment, 2019, 657: 1357–1367

[89] HeTPachfuleP WuH, . Hydrogen carriers. Nature Reviews. Materials, 2016, 1: 16059

[90] Ji S, Lai C, Zhou H. . In situ growth of NiSe₂ nanocrystalline array on graphene for efficient hydrogen evolution reaction. Frontiers in Energy, 2022, 16(4): 595–600

[91] Zhang P, Guo Y J, Chen J. . Streamlined hydrogen production from biomass. Nature Catalysis, 2018, 1(5): 332–338

[92] Shangguan W, Kudo A, Jiang Z. . Photocatalysis: From solar light to hydrogen energy. Frontiers in Energy, 2021, 15(3): 565–567

[93] Navlani-García M, Salinas-Torres D, Mori K. . Enhanced formic acid dehydrogenation by the synergistic alloying effect of PdCo catalysts supported on graphitic carbon nitride. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2019, 44(53): 28483–28493

[94] Han T, Yang W, Jönsson P G. Pyrolysis and subsequent steam gasification of metal dry impregnated lignin for the production of H₂-rich syngas and magnetic activated carbon. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 394: 124902

[95] Weber K, Quicker P. Properties of biochar. Fuel, 2018, 217: 240–261

[96] Tran T K, Kim N, Leu H J. . The production of hydrogen gas from modified water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) biomass through pyrolysis process. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2021, 46(27): 13976–13984

[97] Yao D, Hu Q, Wang D. . Hydrogen production from biomass gasification using biochar as a catalyst/support. Bioresource Technology, 2016, 216: 159–164

[98] Ibrahim A F M, Dandamudi K P R, Deng S. . Pyrolysis of hydrothermal liquefaction algal biochar for hydrogen production in a membrane reactor. Fuel, 2020, 265: 116935

[99] Sunyoto N M S, Zhu M, Zhang Z. . Effect of biochar addition on hydrogen and methane production in two-phase anaerobic digestion of aqueous carbohydrates food waste. Bioresource Technology, 2016, 219: 29–36

[100] Bu J, Wei H L, Wang Y T. . Biochar boosts dark fermentative H₂ production from sugarcane bagasse by selective enrichment/colonization of functional bacteria and enhancing extracellular electron transfer. Water Research, 2021, 202: 117440

[101] Li W, Cheng C, He L. . Effects of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature of biochar on promoting hydrogen production of ethanol-type fermentation. Science of the Total Environment, 2021, 790: 148206

[102] Effendi A, Gerhauser H, Bridgwater A V. Production of renewable phenolic resins by thermochemical conversion of biomass: A review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2008, 12(8): 2092–2116

[103] Chen W, Li K, Xia M. . Catalytic deoxygenation co-pyrolysis of bamboo wastes and microalgae with biochar catalyst. Energy, 2018, 157: 472–482

[104] Wang C, Lei H, Zhao Y. . Integrated harvest of phenolic monomers and hydrogen through catalytic pyrolysis of biomass over nanocellulose derived biochar catalyst. Bioresource Technology, 2021, 320: 124352

[105] Gurrala L, Kumar M M, Yerrayya A. . Unraveling the reaction mechanism of selective C9 monomeric phenol formation from lignin using Pd-Al₂O₃-activated biochar catalyst. Bioresource Technology, 2022, 344(Part B): 126204

[106] Liu Y, He P, Shao L. . Significant enhancement by biochar of caproate production via chain elongation. Water Research, 2017, 119: 150–159

[107] Ghysels S, Buffel S, Rabaey K. . Biochar and activated carbon enhance ethanol conversion and selectivity to caproic acid by Clostridium kluyveri. Bioresource Technology, 2021, 319: 124236

[108] Saynik P B, Moholkar V S. Investigations in influence of different pretreatments on A donax pyrolysis: Trends in product yield, distribution and chemical composition. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2021, 158: 105276

[109] Zheng A, Zhao K, Li L. . Quantitative comparison of different chemical pretreatment methods on chemical structure and pyrolysis characteristics of corncobs. Journal of the Energy Institute, 2018, 91(5): 676–682

[110] Lee Y, Kim Y T, Kwon E E. . Biochar as a catalytic material for the production of 1,4-butanediol and tetrahydrofuran from furan. Environmental Research, 2020, 184: 109325

[111] Lee Y, Lee S W, Tsang Y F. . Engineered rice-straw biochar catalysts for the production of value-added chemicals from furan. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 387: 124194

[112] Khemthong P, Yimsukanan C, Narkkun T. . Advances in catalytic production of value-added biochemicals and biofuels via furfural platform derived lignocellulosic biomass. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2021, 148: 106033

[113] Mariscal R, Maireles-Torres P, Ojeda M. . Furfural: A renewable and versatile platform molecule for the synthesis of chemicals and fuels. Energy & Environmental Science, 2016, 9(4): 1144–1189

[114] Xu C, Paone E, Rodriguez-Padron D. . Recent catalytic routes for the preparation and the upgrading of biomass derived furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Chemical Society Reviews, 2020, 49(13): 4273–4306

[115] Li X, Lu X, Liang M. . Conversion of waste lignocellulose to furfural using sulfonated carbon microspheres as catalyst. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 2020, 108: 119–126

[116] Guo T, Li X, Liu X. . Catalytic transformation of lignocellulosic biomass into arenes, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, and furfural. ChemSusChem, 2018, 11(16): 2758–2765

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press 2023