State-of-the-art progress in overall water splitting of carbon nitride based photocatalysts

Abstract

Converting solar energy into hydrogen (H₂) by photocatalytic water splitting is a promising approach to simultaneously address the increasing energy demand and environmental issues. Half decade has passed since the discovery of photo-induced water splitting phenomenon on TiO₂ photoanode, while the solar to H₂ efficiency is still around 1%, far below the least industrial requirement. Therefore, developing efficient photocatalyst with a high energy conversion efficiency is still one of the main tasks to be overcome. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) is just such an emerging and potential semiconductor. Therefore, in this review, the state-of-the-art advances in g-C₃N₄ based photocatalysts for overall water splitting were summarized in three sections according to the strategies used, and future challenges and new directions were discussed.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

photocatalysis / overall water splitting / carbon nitride / hydrogen

References

[1] Hisatomi T, Kubota J, Domen K. Recent advances in semiconductors for photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical water splitting. Chemical Society Reviews, 2014, 43(22): 7520–7535

[2] Moniz S J A, Shevlin S A, Martin D J, Visible-light driven heterojunction photocatalysts for water splitting – a critical review. Energy & Environmental Science, 2015, 8(3): 731–759

[3] Fujishima A, Honda K. Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode. Nature, 1972, 238(5358): 37–38

[4] Luo J, Im J H, Mayer M T, Water photolysis at 12.3% efficiency via perovskite photovoltaics and earth-abundant catalysts. Science, 2014, 345(6204): 1593–1596

[5] Jia J, Seitz L C, Benck J D, Solar water splitting by photovoltaic-electrolysis with a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency over 30%. Nature Communications, 2016, 7(1): 13237

[6] Chen Y, Feng X, Liu Y, Metal oxide-based tandem cells for self-biased photoelectrochemical water splitting. ACS Energy Letters, 2020, 5(3): 844–866

[7] Chen X, Shen S, Guo L, Semiconductor-based photocatalytic hydrogen generation. Chemical Reviews, 2010, 110(11): 6503–6570

[8] Chen S, Takata T, Domen K. Particulate photocatalysts for overall water splitting. Nature Reviews. Materials, 2017, 2(10): 17050

[9] Wang Z, Li C, Domen K. Recent developments in heterogeneous photocatalysts for solar-driven overall water splitting. Chemical Society Reviews, 2019, 48(7): 2109–2125

[10] Wang Q, Hisatomi T, Jia Q, Scalable water splitting on particulate photocatalyst sheets with a solar-to-hydrogen energy conversion efficiency exceeding 1%. Nature Materials, 2016, 15(6): 611–615

[11] Maeda K, Takata T, Hara M, GaN: ZnO solid solution as a photocatalyst for visible-light-driven overall water splitting. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2005, 127(23): 8286–8287

[12] Maeda K, Domen K. Solid solution of GaN and ZnO as a stable photocatalyst for overall water splitting under visible light. Chemistry of Materials, 2010, 22(3): 612–623

[13] Melo M A Jr, Wu Z, Nail B A, Surface photovoltage measurements on a particle tandem photocatalyst for overall water splitting. Nano Letters, 2018, 18(2): 805–810

[14] Wang Q, Nakabayashi M, Hisatomi T, Oxysulfide photocatalyst for visible-light-driven overall water splitting. Nature Materials, 2019, 18(8): 827–832

[15] Zheng D, Cao X N, Wang X. Precise formation of a hollow carbon nitride structure with a Janus surface to promote water splitting by photoredox catalysis. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2016, 55(38): 11512–11516

[16] Ong W J, Tan L L, Ng Y H, Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄)-based photocatalysts for artificial photosynthesis and environmental remediation: are we a step closer to achieving sustainability? Chemical Reviews, 2016, 116(12): 7159–7329

[17] Thomas A, Fischer A, Goettmann F, Graphitic carbon nitride materials: variation of structure and morphology and their use as metal-free catalysts. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2008, 18(41): 4893–4908

[18] Niu P, Zhang L, Liu G, Graphene-like carbon nitride nanosheets for improved photocatalytic activities. Advanced Functional Materials, 2012, 22(22): 4763–4770

[19] Kang Y, Yang Y, Yin L C, Selective breaking of hydrogen bonds of layered carbon nitride for visible light photocatalysis. Advanced Materials, 2016, 28(30): 6471–6477

[20] Zheng Y, Lin L, Wang B, Graphitic carbon nitride polymers toward sustainable photoredox catalysis. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2015, 54(44): 12868–12884

[21] Luo B, Song R, Jing D. Significantly enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen generation over graphitic carbon nitride with carefully modified intralayer structures. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2018, 332: 499–507

[22] Luo B, Song R, Geng J, Strengthened spatial charge separation over Z-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst for efficient photocatalytic H₂ evolution. Applied Surface Science, 2019, 475: 453–461

[23] Luo B, Song R, Geng J, Facile preparation with high yield of a 3D porous graphitic carbon nitride for dramatically enhanced photocatalytic H₂ evolution under visible light. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2018, 238: 294–301

[24] Wang X, Maeda K, Thomas A, A metal-free polymeric photocatalyst for hydrogen production from water under visible light. Nature Materials, 2009, 8(1): 76–80

[25] Yu H, Shi R, Zhao Y, Alkali-assisted synthesis of nitrogen deficient graphitic carbon nitride with tunable band structures for efficient visible-light-driven hydrogen evolution. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(16): 1605148

[26] Wang X, Maeda K, Thomas A, A metal-free polymeric photocatalyst for hydrogen production from water under visible light. Nature Materials, 2009, 8(1): 76–80

[27] Kim I Y, Jo Y K, Lee J M, The unique advantages of exfoliated 2D nanosheets for tailoring the functionalities of nanocomposites. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2014, 5(23): 4149–4161

[28] Yang S, Gong Y, Zhang J, Exfoliated graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets as efficient catalysts for hydrogen evolution under visible light. Advanced Materials, 2013, 25(17): 2452–2456

[29] Ma R, Liu Z, Li L, Exfoliating layered double hydroxides in formamide: a method to obtain positively charged nanosheets. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2006, 16(39): 3809–3813

[30] Niu P, Zhang L, Liu G, Graphene-like carbon nitride nanosheets for improved photocatalytic activities. Advanced Functional Materials, 2012, 22(22): 4763–4770

[31] Li Y, Jin R, Xing Y, Macroscopic foam-like holey ultrathin g-C₃N₄ nanosheets for drastic improvement of visible-light photocatalytic activity. Advanced Energy Materials, 2016, 6(24): 1601273

[32] Yang J, Wang D, Han H, Roles of cocatalysts in photocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis. Accounts of Chemical Research, 2013, 46(8): 1900–1909

[33] Bai J, Lu B, Han Q, (111) facets-oriented Au-decorated carbon nitride nanoplatelets for visible-light-driven overall water splitting. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2018, 10(44): 38066–38072

[34] Wang N, Li X. Protonated carbon nitride nanosheet supported IrO₂ quantum dots for pure water splitting without sacrificial reagents. Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers, 2018, 5(9): 2268–2275

[35] Zhang G, Lan Z A, Lin L, Overall water splitting by Pt/g-C₃N₄ photocatalysts without using sacrificial agents. Chemical Science (Cambridge), 2016, 7(5): 3062–3066

[36] Pan Z, Zheng Y, Guo F, Decorating CoP and Pt nanoparticles on graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets to promote overall water splitting by conjugated polymers. ChemSusChem, 2017, 10(1): 87–90

[37] Pan Z, Wang S, Niu P, Photocatalytic overall water splitting by spatially-separated Rh and RhO_x cocatalysts on polymeric carbon nitride nanosheets. Journal of Catalysis, 2019, 379: 129–137

[38] Zeng Z, Quan X, Yu H, Alkali-metal-oxides coated ultrasmall Pt sub-nanoparticles loading on intercalated carbon nitride: enhanced charge interlayer transportation and suppressed backwark reaction for overall water splitting. Journal of Catalysis, 2019, 377: 72–80

[39] Sun S, Feng Y, Pan L, Integrating Pt@Ni(OH)₂ nanowire and Pt nanoparticle on C₃N₄ with fast surface kinetics and charge transfer towards highly efficient photocatalytic water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 259: 118028

[40] Yan J, Wu H, Chen H, One-pot hydrothermal fabrication of layered β-Ni(OH)₂/g-C₃N₄ nanohybrids for enhanced photocatalytic water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2016, 194: 74–83

[41] Sun S, Zhang Y C, Shen G, Photoinduced composite of Pt decorated Ni(OH)₂ as strongly synergetic cocatalyst to boost H₂O activation for photocatalytic overall water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 243: 253–261

[42] Li X, Bi W, Zhang L, Single-atom Pt as co-catalyst for enhanced photocatalytic H₂ evolution. Advanced Materials, 2016, 28(12): 2427–2431

[43] Lee B H, Park S, Kim M, Reversible and cooperative photoactivation of single-atom Cu/TiO₂ photocatalysts. Nature Materials, 2019, 18(6): 620–626

[44] Fang X, Shang Q, Wang Y, Single Pt atoms confined into a metal–organic framework for efficient photocatalysis. Advanced Materials, 2018, 30(7): 1705112

[45] Liu M, Wang L, Zhao K, Atomically dispersed metal catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction: synthesis, characterization, reaction mechanisms and electrochemical energy applications. Energy & Environmental Science, 2019, 12(10): 2890–2923

[46] Zhang Q, Guan J. Recent progress in single-atom catalysts for photocatalytic water splitting. Solar RRL, 2020, 4(9): 2000283

[47] Qureshi M, Garcia-Esparza A T, Jeantelot G, Catalytic consequences of ultrafine Pt clusters supported on SrTiO₃ for photocatalytic overall water splitting. Journal of Catalysis, 2019, 376: 180–190

[48] Su H, Liu M, Cheng W, Heterogeneous single-site synergetic catalysis for spontaneous photocatalytic overall water splitting. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2019, 7(18): 11170–11176

[49] Wang S, Chen L, Zhao X, Efficient photocatalytic overall water splitting on metal-free 1D SWCNT/2D ultrathin C₃N₄ heterojunctions via novel non-resonant plasmonic effect. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2020, 278: 119312

[50] Liu J, Liu Y, Liu N, Metal-free efficient photocatalyst for stable visible water splitting via a two-electron pathway. Science, 2015, 347(6225): 970–974

[51] Qu D, Liu J, Miao X, Peering into water splitting mechanism of g-C₃N₄-carbon dots metal-free photocatalyst. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2018, 227: 418–424

[52] Fu Y, Liu C, Zhu C, High-performance NiO/g-C₃N₄ composites for visible-light-driven photocatalytic overall water splitting. Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers, 2018, 5(7): 1646–1652

[53] Han M, Wang H, Zhao S, One-step synthesis of CoO/g-C₃N₄ composites by thermal decomposition for overall water splitting without sacrificial reagents. Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers, 2017, 4(10): 1691–1696

[54] Liu J, Liu N Y, Li H, A critical study of the generality of the two step two electron pathway for water splitting by application of a C₃N₄/MnO₂ photocatalyst. Nanoscale, 2016, 8(23): 11956–11961

[55] Wang N, Li J, Wu L, MnO₂ and carbon nanotube co-modified C₃N₄ composite catalyst for enhanced water splitting activity under visible light irradiation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2016, 41(48): 22743–22750

[56] Zhou X, Li J, Cai X, In situ photo-derived MnOOH collaborating with Mn₂Co₂C@C dual co-catalysts boost photocatalytic overall water splitting. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2020, 8(33): 17120–17127

[57] Liu W, Cao L, Cheng W, Single-site active cobalt-based photocatalyst with a long carrier lifetime for spontaneous overall water splitting. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2017, 56(32): 9312–9317

[58] Xiong Y, Chen Y, Yang N, WC_1−x-coupled 3D porous defective g-C₃N₄ for efficient photocatalytic overall water splitting. Solar RRL, 2019, 3(5): 1800341

[59] Chen X, Shi R, Chen Q, Three-dimensional porous g-C₃N₄ for highly efficient photocatalytic overall water splitting. Nano Energy, 2019, 59: 644–650

[60] Zeng Y, Li H, Luo J, Sea-urchin-structure g-C₃N₄ with narrow bandgap (~2.0 eV) for efficient overall water splitting under visible light irradiation. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 249: 275–281

[61] Song T, Zhang P, Wang T, Alkali-assisted fabrication of holey carbon nitride nanosheet with tunable conjugated system for efficient visible-light-driven water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2018, 224: 877–885

[62] Wu C, Xue S, Qin Z, Making g-C₃N₄ ultra-thin nanosheets active for photocatalytic overall water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2021, 282: 119557

[63] Che W, Cheng W, Yao T, Fast photoelectron transfer in (C_ring)-C₃N₄ plane heterostructural nanosheets for overall water splitting. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2017, 139(8): 3021–3026

[64] Fang X, Gao R, Yang Y, A cocrystal precursor strategy for carbon-rich graphitic carbon nitride toward high-efficiency photocatalytic overall water splitting. Science, 2019, 16: 22–30

[65] Bellamkonda S, Shanmugam R, Gangavarapu R R. Extending the p-electron conjugation in 2D planar graphitic carbon nitride: efficient charge separation for overall water splitting. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2019, 7(8): 3757–3771

[66] Guo F, Chen J, Zhang M, Deprotonation of g-C₃N₄ with Na ions for efficient nonsacrificial water splitting under visible light. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2016, 4(28): 10806–10809

[67] Zhang G, Zhang M, Ye X, Iodine modified carbon nitride semiconductors as visible light photocatalysts for hydrogen evolution. Advanced Materials, 2014, 26(5): 805–809

[68] Liu C, Zhang Y, Dong F, Chlorine intercalation in graphitic carbon nitride for efficient photocatalysis. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2017, 203: 465–474

[69] Li J, Cui W, Sun Y, Directional electron delivery via a vertical channel between g-C₃N₄ layers promotes photocatalytic efficiency. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2017, 5(19): 9358–9364

[70] Wang J C, Hou Y, Feng F D, A recyclable molten-salt synthesis of B and K co-doped g-C₃N₄ for photocatalysis of overall water vapor splitting. Applied Surface Science, 2021, 537: 148014

[71] Lin L, Yu Z, Wang X. Crystalline carbon nitride semiconductors for photocatalytic water splitting. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2019, 58(19): 6164–6175

[72] Lin L, Ren W, Wang C, Crystalline carbon nitride semiconductors prepared at different temperatures for photocatalytic hydrogen production. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2018, 231: 234–241

[73] Schwinghammer K, Mesch M B, Duppel V, Crystalline carbon nitride nanosheets for improved visible-light hydrogen evolution. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2014, 136(5): 1730–1733

[74] Ou H, Lin L, Zheng Y, Tri-s-triazine-based crystalline carbon nitride nanosheets for an improved hydrogen evolution. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(22): 1700008

[75] Lin L, Wang C, Ren W, Photocatalytic overall water splitting by conjugated semiconductors with crystalline poly(triazine imide) frameworks. Chemical Science (Cambridge), 2017, 8(8): 5506–5511

[76] Lin L, Lin Z, Zhang J, Molecular-level insights on the reactive facet of carbon nitride single crystals photocatalysing overall water splitting. Nature Catalysis, 2020, 3(8): 649–655

[77] Guo F, Shi W, Zhu C, CoO and g-C₃N₄ complement each other for highly efficient overall water splitting under visible light. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2018, 226: 412–420

[78] Wang N, Li X. Facile synthesis of CoO nanorod/C₃N₄ heterostructure photocatalyst for an enhanced pure water splitting activity. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 2018, 92: 14–17

[79] Shi W, Li M, Huang X, Facile synthpolymeric carbon nitride for overall water splitting through a one-photon excitation pathway. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2020, 59: 1–6

[80] Lin Y, Su W, Wang X, LaOCl-coupled polymeric carbon nitride for overall water splitting through a one-photon excitation pathway. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2020, 59: 1–6

[81] Fang Y, Huang W, Yang S, Facile synthesis of anatase/rutile TiO₂/g-C₃N₄ multi-heterostructure for efficient photocatalytic overall water splitting. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2020, 45(35): 17378–17387

[82] Raziq F, Sun L, Wang Y, Synthesis of large surface-area g-C₃N₄ comodified with MnO_x and Au-TiO₂ as efficient visible-light photocatalysts for fuel production. Advanced Energy Materials, 2018, 8(3): 1701580

[83] He H, Cao J, Guo M, Distinctive ternary CdS/Ni₂P/g-C₃N₄ composite for overall water splitting: Ni₂P accelerating separation of photocarriers. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 249: 246–256

[84] Pan J, Wang P, Wang P, The photocatalytic overall water splitting hydrogen production of g-C₃N₄/CdS hollow core–shell heterojunction via the HER/OER matching of Pt/MnO_x. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 405: 126622

[85] Zhou X, Fang Y, Cai X, In situ photodeposited construction of Pt–CdS/g-C₃N₄–MnO_x composite photocatalyst for efficient visible-light-driven overall water splitting. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2020, 12(18): 20579–20588

[86] Raziq F, Hayat A, Humayun M, Photocatalytic solar fuel production and environmental remediation through experimental and DFT based research on CdSe-QDs-coupled P-doped-g-C₃N₄ composites. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2020, 270: 118867

[87] Martin D J, Reardon P J T, Moniz S J A, Visible light-driven pure water splitting by a nature-inspired organic semiconductor-based system. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2014, 136(36): 12568–12571

[88] Chen W, Liu M, Li X, Synthesis of 3D mesoporous g-C₃N₄ for efficient overall water splitting under a Z-scheme photocatalytic system. Applied Surface Science, 2020, 512: 145782

[89] She X, Wu J, Xu H, High efficiency photocatalytic water splitting using 2D α-Fe₂O₃/g-C₃N₄ Z-scheme catalysts. Advanced Energy Materials, 2017, 7(17): 1700025

[90] Wang N, Han B, Wen J, Synthesis of novel Mn-doped Fe₂O₃ nanocube supported g-C₃N₄ photocatalyst for overall visible-light driven water splitting. Colloids and Surfaces A, Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 2019, 567: 313–318

[91] Favereau L, Makhal A, Pellegrin Y, A molecular tetrad that generates a high-energy charge-separated sate by mimicking the photosynthetic Z-scheme. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2016, 138(11): 3752–3760

[92] Pan Z, Zhang G, Wang X. Polymeric carbon nitride/reduced graphene oxide/Fe₂O₃: all-solid-state Z-scheme system for photocatalytic overall water splitting. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2019, 58(21): 7102–7106

[93] Sun Y, Shao S, Wang Y, Fabrication of hollow g-C₃N₄@α-Fe₂O₃/Co-Pi heterojunction spheres with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic water splitting activity. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2020, 45(4): 2840–2851

[94] Wang N, Wu L, Li J, Construction of hierarchical Fe₂O₃@MnO₂ core/shell nanocube supported C₃N₄ for dual Z-scheme photocatalytic water splitting. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 2020, 215: 110624

[95] Sepahvand H, Sharifnia S. Photocatalytic overall water splitting by Z-scheme g-C₃N₄/BiFeO₃ heterojunction. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2019, 44(42): 23658–23668

[96] Mo Z, Xu H, Chen Z, Construction of MnO₂/Monolayer g-C₃N₄ with Mn vacancies for Z-scheme overall water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 241: 452–460

[97] Yang Y, Qiu M, Li L, A direct Z-scheme van der waals heterojunction (WO₃·H₂O/g-C₃N₄) for high efficient overall water splitting under visible-light. Solar RRL, 2018, 2(9): 1800148

[98] Zhao G, Huang X, Fina F, Facile structure design based on C₃N₄ for mediator-free Z-scheme water splitting under visible light. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2015, 5(6): 3416–3422

[99] Xie H, Zhao Y, Li H, 2D BiVO₄/g-C₃N₄ Z-scheme photocatalyst for enhanced overall water splitting. Journal of Materials Science, 2019, 54(15): 10836–10845

[100] Tan S, Xing Z, Zhang J, Ti³⁺-TiO₂/g-C₃N₄ mesostructured nanosheets heterojunctions as efficient visible-light-driven photocatalysts. Journal of Catalysis, 2018, 357: 90–99

[101] Yan J, Wu H, Chen H, Fabrication of TiO₂/C₃N₄ heterostructure for enhanced photocatalytic Z-scheme overall water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2016, 191: 130–137

[102] Pan L, Wang S, Xie J, Constructing TiO₂ p-n homojunction for photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic hydrogen generation. Nano Energy, 2016, 28: 296–303

[103] Low J, Yu J, Jaroniec M, Heterojunction photocatalysts. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(20): 1601694

[104] Liu G, Zhao G, Zhou W, In situ bond modulation of graphitic carbon nitride to construct p–n homojunctions for enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen production. Advanced Functional Materials, 2016, 26(37): 6822–6829

[105] Shi J W, Zou Y, Cheng L, In-situ phosphating to synthesize Ni₂P decorated NiO/g-C₃N₄ p-n junction for enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen production. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 378: 122161

[106] Nekouei F, Nekouei S, Pouzesh M, Porous-CdS/Cu₂O/graphitic-C₃N₄ dual p-n junctions as highly efficient photo/catalysts for degrading ciprofloxacin and generating hydrogen using solar energy. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 385: 123710

[107] Hua S, Qu D, An L, Highly efficient p-type Cu₃P/n-type g-C₃N₄ photocatalyst through Z-scheme charge transfer route. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 240: 253–261

[108] Ai Z, Shao Y, Chang B, Rational modulation of p-n homojunction in P-doped g-C₃N₄ decorated with Ti₃C₂ for photocatalytic overall water splitting. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2019, 259: 118077

[109] Zhang K, Wang L, Sheng X, Tunable bandgap energy and promotion of H₂O₂ oxidation for overall water splitting from carbon nitride nanowire bundles. Advanced Energy Materials, 2016, 6(11): 1502352

[110] Xue F, Si Y, Wang M, Toward efficient photocatalytic pure water splitting for simultaneous H₂ and H₂O₂ production. Nano Energy, 2019, 62: 823–831

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2018YFB1502000); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51961130386, 51876173, 62074123, and 61701543); Newton Advanced Fellowship of the Royal Society (No. NAF\R1\191163); the PetroChina Innovation Foundation (No. 2019D-5007-0410); and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2020M683472).

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2021 Higher Education Press