Crop residues: applications of lignocellulosic biomass in the context of a biorefinery

Abstract

Interest in lignocellulosic biomass conversion technologies has increased recently because of their potential to reduce the dependency on non-renewable feedstocks. Residues from a variety of crops are the major source of lignocellulose, which is being produced in increasingly large quantities worldwide. The commercial exploitation of crop residues as feedstocks for biorefineries which could be used to produce a variety of goods such as biofuels, biochemicals, bioplastics, and enzymes is an attractive approach not only for adding value to residues but also for providing renewable products required by the expanding bioeconomy market. Moreover, the implementation of biorefineries in different regions has the potential to add value to the specific crop residues produced in the region. In this review, several aspects of crop residue application in biorefineries are discussed, including the role of crop residues in the bioeconomy and circular economy concepts, the main technical aspects of crop residue conversion in biorefineries, the main crop residues generated in different regions of the world and their availability, the potential value-added bioproducts that can be extracted or produced from each crop residue, and the major advantages and challenges associated with crop residue utilization in biorefineries. Despite their potential, most biomass refining technologies are not sufficiently advanced or financially viable. Several technical obstacles, especially with regard to crop residue collection, handling, and pre-treatment, prevent the implementation of biorefineries on a commercial scale. Further research is needed to resolve these scale-up-related challenges. Increased governmental incentives and bioeconomic strategies are expected to boost the biorefinery market and the cost competitiveness of biorefinery products.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

crop residue / biorefinery / bioproduct / biomass / circular bioeconomy / enzyme

References

[1] Finkelstein M, Sheehan J. Biomass and biotechnology: a key to sustainability. Bioenergy: Knowledge Discovery Framework, 2009

[2] Energy EE& R. Bionergy basics. 2018–3-2, available at the website of Department of Energy

[3] Silva C O G, Vaz R P, Filho E X F. Bringing plant cell wall-degrading enzymes into the lignocellulosic biorefinery concept. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 2018, 12: 277–289

[4] European Comission. A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe: strengthening the connection between economy, society and the environment. 2018

[5] Bugge M M, Hansen T, Klitkou A. What is the bioeconomy? A review of the literature. Sustainability, 2016, 8: 22

[6] Bioeconomy BW. What is a bioeconomy? 2019–11–18, available at the website of biooekonomie-bw

[7] Bos H, Annevelink B R, van Ree O. The role of biomass, bioenergy and biorefining in a circular economy. IEA Bioenergy, 2017

[8] Tozlu A, Özahi E, Abuşoʇlu A. Waste to energy technologies for municipal solid waste management in Gaziantep. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 54: 809–815

[9] Nizami A S, Rehan M, Waqas M, Waste biorefineries: enabling circular economies in developing countries. Bioresource Technology, 2017, 241: 1101–1117

[10] Venkata Mohan S, Nikhil G N, Chiranjeevi P, Waste biorefinery models towards sustainable circular bioeconomy: critical review and future perspectives. Bioresource Technology, 2016, 215: 2–12

[11] Yang Y, Zhang P, Yang X, Spatial and temporal dynamics of agricultural residue resources in the last 30 years in China. Waste Management & Research, 2016, 34(12): 1231–1240

[12] Squinca P, Badino A C, Farinas C S. A closed-loop strategy for endoglucanase production using sugarcane bagasse liquefied by a home-made enzymatic cocktail. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 249: 976–982

[13] Silva C O G, Aquino E N, Ricart C A O, GH11 xylanase from Emericella nidulans with low sensitivity to inhibition by ethanol and lignocellulose-derived phenolic compounds. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 2015, 362(13): 1–8

[14] Rosales-Calderon O, Arantes V. A review on commercial-scale high-value products that can be produced alongside cellulosic ethanol. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2019, 12(1):240

[15] Gomes H A R, Silva A J, Gómez-Mendoza D P, Identification of multienzymatic complexes in the Clonostachys byssicola secretomes produced in response to different lignocellulosic carbon sources. Journal of Biotechnology, 2017, 254: 51–58

[16] Thorenz A, Wietschel L, Stindt D, Assessment of agroforestry residue potentials for the bioeconomy in the European Union. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 176: 348–359

[17] Silva C O G, Filho E X F. A review of holocellulase production using pretreated lignocellulosic substrates. BioEnergy Resource, 2017, 10: 592–602

[18] Lopes A de M, Ferreira Filho E X, de Souza Moreira L R. An update on enzymatic cocktails for lignocellulose breakdown. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2018, 125(3):632–645

[19] Yin X, Duan X, You Q, Biodiesel production from soybean oil deodorizer distillate using calcined duck eggshell as catalyst. Energy Conversion and Management, 2016, 112: 199–207

[20] King S D. The future of industrial biorefineries. World Economic Forum, 2010

[21] Lapola D M, Schaldach R, Alcamo J, Indirect land-use changes can overcome carbon savings from biofuels in Brazil. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2010, 107(8): 3388–3393

[22] Fillat U, Martín-Sampedro R, Macaya-Sanz D, Potential of lignin-degrading endophytic fungi on lignocellulosic biorefineries. In: Maheshwari D K, Annapurna K, eds. Endophytes: Crop Productivity and Protection. Springer, Cham, 2017, 95–110

[23] Bech L, Herbst F, Grell M N, On-site enzyme production by trichoderma asperellum for the degradation of duckweed. Fungal Genomics & Biology, 2015, 5(02): 10

[24] Andreaus J, Ximenes Ferreira Filho E, Pinto da Silva Bon E. Biotechnology of holocellulose-degrading enzymes. In: Hou C T, Shaw J F, eds. Biocatalysis and Bioenergy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008, 195–229

[25] Hoogwijk M, Faaij A, van den Broek R, Exploration of the ranges of the global potential of biomass for energy. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2003, 25(2): 119–133

[26] Andrew S S. Crop residue removal for biomass energy production: effects on soils and recommendations. USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service, 2006

[27] Daioglou V, Stehfest E, Wicke B, Projections of the availability and cost of residues from agriculture and forestry. GCB Bioenergy, 2016, 8(2): 456–470

[28] Scarlat N, Martinov M, Dallemand J F. Assessment of the availability of agricultural crop residues in the European Union: potential and limitations for bioenergy use. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 2010, 30(10): 1889–1897

[29] BCC Publishing. Global markets for enzymes in industrial applications. 2018–7-13, at the website of bccresearch

[30] Searle S, Malins C. A reassessment of global bioenergy potential in 2050. GCB Bioenergy, 2015, 7(2): 328–336

[31] Zalfar S. A primer on agricultural residues. 2019–11–17, available at the website of bioenergyconsult

[32] Tripathi N, Hills C D, Singh R S, Biomass waste utilisation in low-carbon products: harnessing a major potential resource. npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 2019, 2(1): 1–10

[33] Cherubin M R, Oliveira D M D S, Feigl B J, Crop residue harvest for bioenergy production and its implications on soil functioning and plant growth: a review. Scientia Agrícola, 2018, 75(3): 255–272

[34] Tarkalson B D D, Brown B, Kok H, Impact of removing straw from wheat and barley fields: a literature review. Better Crops with Plant Food, 2009, 93: 17–19

[35] Monteleone M, Cammerino A R B, Garofalo P, Straw-to-soil or straw-to-energy? An optimal trade off in a long term sustainability perspective. Applied Energy, 2015, 154: 891–899

[36] Sietske Boschma D, Kees I, Kwant W. Rice straw and wheat straw: potentials feedstocks for the biobased economy. NL Agency Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2013

[37] FAO. FAOSTAT. 2018–3-18, available at the website of FAO

[38] Crop Residues FAO. Emissions database agriculture. 2017–6-28, available at the website of FAO

[39] Agbor V B, Cicek N, Sparling R, Biomass pretreatment: fundamentals toward application. Biotechnology Advances, 2011, 29(6): 675–685

[40] Nunes R de M, Guarda E A, Serra J C V, Agro-industrial waste: production potential of second generation ethanol in Brazil. Revista Liberato, 2013, 14: 113–238 (in Portuguese)

[41] USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Production, supply and distribution. 2018–3-18, available at the website of USDA

[42] Shalini R, Gupta D K. Utilization of pomace from apple processing industries: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2010, 47(4): 365–371

[43] Lal R. World crop residues production and implications of its use as a biofuel. Environment International, 2005, 31(4): 575–584

[44] Ray D K, Mueller N D, West P C, Yield trends are insufficient to double global crop production by 2050. PLoS One, 2013, 8(6): e66428

[45] Kim S, Dale B E. Global potential bioethanol production from wasted crops and crop residues. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2004, 26(4): 361–375

[46] Bezerra T L, Ragauskas A J. A review of sugarcane bagasse for second-generation bioethanol and biopower production. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 2016, 6: 246–256

[47] FAO. Part 3: Feeding the world. In: FAO Statistical Yearbook, 2013: 123–158

[48] Macauley H. Cereal crops: rice, maize, millet, sorghum, wheat. In: Conference of Feeding Africa: An action plan for African agricultural transformation, Dakar, Senegal, 2015, 1–36

[49] Assefa Y, Roozeboom K, Thompson C, Corn and Grain Sorghum Comparison: All Things Considered. Oxford and Waltham: Academic Press, 2014

[50] Olesen J E, Trnka M, Kersebaum K C, Impacts and adaptation of European crop production systems to climate change. European Journal of Agronomy, 2011, 34(2): 96–112

[51] Oerke E C, Dehne H W. Safeguarding production–losses in major crops and the role of crop protection. Crop Protection (Guildford, Surrey), 2004, 23(4): 275–285

[52] Willer H, Lernoud J, Huber B, The World of Organic Agriculture–Statistics and Emerging Trends. Bonn: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), 2015

[53] Wrigley C, Corke H, Seetharaman K, Encyclopedia of Food Grains. Academic Press, 2015

[54] Medina J, Monreal C, Barea J M, Crop residue stabilization and application to agricultural and degraded soils: a review. Waste Management, 2015, 42: 41–54

[55] NASA.Technology readiness level. 2019–11–17, available at the website of NASA

[56] Bacovsky D. Production facilities. 2020–4-25, available at website of ETIP Bioenergy

[57] Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Integrated biorefineries. 2020–4-25, available at the website of Department of Energy

[58] Bentsen N S, Felby C. Biomass for energy in the European Union–a review of bioenergy resource assessments. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2012, 5(1): 25

[59] Beringer T, Lucht W, Schaphoff S. Bioenergy production potential of global biomass plantations under environmental and agricultural constraints. Global Change Biology. Bioenergy, 2011, 3(4): 299–312

[60] Uçkun Kıran E, Trzcinski A P, Liu Y. Platform chemical production from food wastes using a biorefinery concept. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology (Oxford, Oxfordshire), 2015, 90(8): 1364–1379

[61] Gontard N, Sonesson U, Birkved M, A research challenge vision regarding management of agricultural waste in a circular bio-based economy. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2018, 48(6): 614–654

[62] Aouf C, Benyahya S, Esnouf A, Tara tannins as phenolic precursors of thermosetting epoxy resins. European Polymer Journal, 2014, 55: 186–198

[63] de Jong E, Higson A, Walsh P, Bio-based chemicals: value added products from Biorefineries. IEA Bioenergy–Task 42 Biorefinery, 2012

[64] European Bioplastic. Bioplastics market data. 2018–9-25, available at the website of european-bioplastics

[65] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2019–2028. 2019, available at the website of FAO

[66] Philp J. Policies for bioplastics in the context of a bioeconomy. OECD Science, Tecnology and Industry Policy Papers, 2014

[67] Newton T. Coffee isn’t world’s 2nd-most traded commodity (but it’s important). Perfect Daily Grind. 2020–9-28, available at the website of perfectdailygrind

[68] Wagner J. International trade in goods statistics by product Exports 2001–2019. International Trade in Goods, 2019, available at the website of intracen

[69] Conab. Monitoring the Brazilian coffee crop. Quarto levantamento. Brasília, 2019 (in Portuguese)

[70] Esquivel P, Jiménez V M. Functional properties of coffee and coffee by-products. Food Research International, 2012, 46(2): 488–495

[71] Orozco A L, Pérez M I, Guevara O, Biotechnological enhancement of coffee pulp residues by solid-state fermentation with Streptomyces. Py–GC/MS analysis. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2008, 81(2): 247–252

[72] Pandey A, Soccol C R, Mitchell D. New developments in solid state fermentation: I-bioprocesses and products. Process Biochemistry, 2000, 35(10): 1153–1169

[73] Caetano N S, Caldeira D, Martins A A, Valorisation of spent coffee grounds: production of biodiesel via enzymatic catalysis with ethanol and a co-solvent. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 2017, 8(6): 1981–1994

[74] Kondamudi N, Mohapatra S K, Misra M. Spent coffee grounds as a versatile source of green energy. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2008, 56(24): 11757–11760

[75] Mazzafera P. Degradation of caffeine by microorganisms and potential use of decaffeinated coffee husk and pulp in animal feeding. Scientia Agrícola, 2002, 59(4): 815–821

[76] Givens D I, Barber W P. In vivo evaluation of spent coffee grounds as a ruminant feed. Agricultural Wastes, 1986, 18(1): 69–72

[77] Costa A S G, Alves R C, Vinha A F, Nutritional, chemical and antioxidant/pro-oxidant profiles of silverskin, a coffee roasting by-product. Food Chemistry, 2018, 267: 28–35

[78] Hijosa-Valsero M, Garita-Cambronero J, Paniagua-García A I, Biobutanol production from coffee silverskin. Microbial Cell Factories, 2018, 17: 154

[79] Licursi D, Antonetti C, Fulignati S, Smart valorization of waste biomass: exhausted lemon peels, coffee silverskins and paper wastes for the production of levulinic acid. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 2018, 65: 637–642

[80] Murthy P S, Madhava Naidu M, Srinivas P. Production of α-amylase under solid-state fermentation utilizing coffee waste. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology (Oxford, Oxfordshire), 2009, 84(8): 1246–1249

[81] Cerda A, Mejías L, Gea T, Cellulase and xylanase production at pilot scale by solid-state fermentation from coffee husk using specialized consortia: the consistency of the process and the microbial communities involved. Bioresource Technology, 2017, 243: 1059–1068

[82] Antier P, Minjares A, Roussos S, Pectinase-hyperproducing mutants of Aspergillus niger C28B25 for solid-state fermentation of coffee pulp. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 1993, 15(3): 254–260

[83] Sung S H, Chang Y, Han J. Development of polylactic acid nanocomposite films reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals derived from coffee silverskin. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2017, 169: 495–503

[84] Carnier R, Berton R S, Coscione A R, Coffee silverskin and expired coffee powder used as organic fertilizers. Coffee Science, 2019, 14(1): 24

[85] Qureshi N, Saha B C, Cotta M A. Butanol production from wheat straw hydrolysate using Clostridium beijerinckii. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering, 2007, 30(6): 419–427

[86] Navya P N, Pushpa S M. Production, statistical optimization and application of endoglucanase from Rhizopus stolonifer utilizing coffee husk. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering, 2013, 36(8): 1115–1123

[87] Dias M, Melo M M, Schwan R F, A new alternative use for coffee pulp from semi-dry process to β-glucosidase production by Bacillus subtilis. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 2015, 61(6): 588–595

[88] Selvam K, Govarthanan M, Kamala-Kannan S, Process optimization of cellulase production from alkali-treated coffee pulp and pineapple waste using Acinetobacter sp. TSK-MASC. RSC Advances, 2014, 4(25): 13045–13051

[89] Battista F, Fino D, Mancini G. Optimization of biogas production from coffee production waste. Bioresource Technology, 2016, 200: 884–890

[90] Hermosa V A B. Use of residues from semi-dry coffee processing to produce value-added compounds. Dissertation for the Master’s Degree. Lavras: Universidade Federal de Lavras, 2014 (in Portuguese)

[91] Machado C M M, Soccol C R, De Oliveira B H, Gibberellic acid production by solid-state fermentation in coffee husk. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology–Part A Enzyme Engineering and Biotechnology, 2002, 102–103(1-6): 179–192

[92] Dias M. Utilization of coffee processing residues for the production of carotenoids by yeasts and bacteria. Dissertations for the Doctoral Degree. Lavras: Universidade Federal de Lavras, 2016 (in Portuguese)

[93] Salmones D, Mata G, Waliszewski K N. Comparative culturing of Pleurotus spp. on coffee pulp and wheat straw: biomass production and substrate biodegradation. Bioresource Technology, 2005, 96(5): 537–544

[94] Nguyen T H, Ra C H, Sunwoo I Y, Bioethanol production from soybean residue via separate hydrolysis and fermentation. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2018, 184: 513–523

[95] Pereira D M. Evaluation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity of soy protein isolate, okara and its hydrolysates. Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2017 (in Portuguese)

[96] Queiroz Santos V A, Nascimento C G, Schmidt C A P, Solid-state fermentation of soybean okara: isoflavones biotransformation, antioxidant activity and enhancement of nutritional quality. LWT, 2018, 92: 509–515

[97] Rodrigues C, Vandenberghe L P S, Goyzueta L D, Production, extraction and purification of gibberellic acid by solid state fermentation using citric pulp and soy husk. BAOJ Chemistry, 2016, 2(2): 014

[98] Cunha J R B, Santos F C P, Assis F G V, Cultivation of Penicillium spp.in soybean crop residues for cellulase, protease and amylase production. Revista Ceres, 2016, 63: 597–604 (in Portuguese)

[99] Tombini J. Production of fungal lipase from by-products of soybean processing. Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná 2015 (in Portuguese)

[100] Ellilä S, Fonseca L, Uchima C, Cota J, Development of a low-cost cellulase production process using Trichoderma reesei for Brazilian biorefineries. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2017, 10(1): 30

[101] Cunha L, Martarello R, De Souza P M, Optimization of xylanase production from Aspergillus foetidus in soybean residue. Enzyme Research, 2018: 6597017

[102] Zhu J, Zheng Y, Xu F, et al. Solid-state anaerobic co-digestion of hay and soybeanprocessing waste for biogas production. Bio-resource Technology, 2014, 154: 240–247

[103] Granjo J F O, Duarte B P M, Oliveira N M C. Integrated production of biodiesel in a soybean biorefinery: modeling, simulation and economical assessment. Energy, 2017, 129: 273–291

[104] de Moraes Filho M L, Busanello M, Prudencio S H, Soymilk with okara flour fermented by Lactobacillus acidophilus: simplex-centroid mixture design applied in the elaboration of probiotic creamy sauce and storage stability. LWT, 2018, 93: 339–345

[105] Khare S K, Jha K, Gandhi A P. Citric acid production from okara (soy-residue) by solid-state fermentation. Bioresource Technology, 1995, 54(3): 323–325

[106] Wanmolee W, Sornlake W, Rattanaphan N, Biochemical characterization and synergism of cellulolytic enzyme system from Chaetomium globosum on rice straw saccharification. BMC Biotechnology, 2016, 16(1): 82

[107] Sekhon J K, Rosentrater K A, Jung S, Effect of co-products of enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of soybeans, enzymes, and surfactant on oil recovery from integrated corn-soy fermentation. Industrial Crops and Products. Elsevier, 2018, 121: 441–451

[108] Szczerbowski D, Pitarelo A P, Zandoná Filho A, Sugarcane biomass for biorefineries: comparative composition of carbohydrate and non-carbohydrate components of bagasse and straw. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2014, 114: 95–101

[109] Renewable Fuels Association. Building partnerships | growing markets 2017 ethanol industry outlook. In: Henderson M, Koehler N, Seurer J, Dinneen B, eds. National Ethanol Conference, 2017

[110] de Souza Moreira L R, de Carvalho Campos M, de Siqueira P H V M, Two β-xylanases from Aspergillus terreus: characterization and influence of phenolic compounds on xylanase activity. Fungal Genetics and Biology, 2013, 60: 46–52

[111] Camassola M, Dillon A J P. Effect of different pretreatment of sugar cane bagasse on cellulase and xylanases production by the mutant Penicillium echinulatum 9A02S1 grown in submerged culture. BioMed Research International, 2014: 720740

[112] Prajapati B P, Jana U K, Suryawanshi R K, Sugarcane bagasse saccharification using Aspergillus tubingensis enzymatic cocktail for 2G bio-ethanol production. Renewable Energy, 2020, 152: 653–663

[113] Jain L, Agrawal D. Performance evaluation of fungal cellulases with dilute acid pretreated sugarcane bagasse: a robust bioprospecting strategy for biofuel enzymes. Renewable Energy, 2018, 115: 978–988

[114] Kumar S, Sharma H K, Sarkar B C. Effect of substrate and fermentation conditions on pectinase and cellulase production by Aspergillus niger NCIM 548 in submerged (SmF) and solid state fermentation (SSF). Food Science and Biotechnology, 2011, 20(5): 1289–1298

[115] Xue D S, Chen H Y, Lin D Q, Optimization of a natural medium for cellulase by a marine Aspergillus niger using response surface methodology. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2012, 167(7): 1963–1972

[116] Gelain L, da Cruz Pradella J G, da Costa A C. Mathematical modeling of enzyme production using Trichoderma harzianum P49P11 and sugarcane bagasse as carbon source. Bioresource Technology, 2015, 198: 101–107

[117] He Y C, Xia D Q, Ma C L, Enzymatic saccharification of sugarcane bagasse by N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide-tolerant cellulase from a newly isolated Galactomyces sp. CCZU11–1. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 18–22

[118] Mokomele T, da Costa Sousa L, Bals B, Using steam explosion or AFEX^TM to produce animal feeds and biofuel feedstocks in a biorefinery based on sugarcane residues. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 2018, 12(6): 978–996

[119] Schmidt L M, Mthembu L D, Reddy P, Levulinic acid production integrated into a sugarcane bagasse based biorefinery using thermal-enzymatic pretreatment. Industrial Crops and Products, 2017, 99: 172–178

[120] Almeida F C R, Sales A, Moretti J P, Sugarcane bagasse ash sand (SBAS): Brazilian agroindustrial by-product for use in mortar. Construction and Building Materials. Elsevier Ltd, 2015, 82: 31–38

[121] Carpio L G T, De Souza F S. Competition between second-generation ethanol and bioelectricity using the residual biomass of sugarcane: effects of uncertainty on the production mix. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 2019, 24: 1–15

[122] Menandro L M S, Cantarella H, Franco H C J, Comprehensive assessment of sugarcane straw: implications for biomass and bioenergy production. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 2017, 11(3): 488–504

[123] You X, van Heiningen A, Sixta H, Lignin and ash balances of sulfur dioxide-ethanol-water fractionation of sugarcane straw. Bioresource Technology, 2017, 244: 1111–1120

[124] Hernández-Pérez A F, de Arruda P V, Felipe M G A. Sugarcane straw as a feedstock for xylitol production by Candida guilliermondii FTI 20037. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 2016, 47(2): 489–496

[125] Candido R G, Gonçalves A R. Synthesis of cellulose acetate and carboxymethylcellulose from sugarcane straw. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2016, 152: 679–686

[126] Mariano A P, Dias M O S, Junqueira T L, Butanol production in a first-generation Brazilian sugarcane biorefinery: technical aspects and economics of greenfield projects. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 316–323

[127] Robl D, Costa S, Büchli F, Bioresource technology enhancing of sugar cane bagasse hydrolysis by Annulohypoxylon stygium glycohydrolases. Bioresorce Technology, 2015,177: 247–254

[128] de Souza Moreira L R, de Carvalho Campos M, de Siqueira P H V M, Two beta-xylanases from Aspergillus terreus: characterization and influence of phenolic compounds on xylanase activity. Fungal Genetics and Biology, 2013, 60: 46–52

[129] Pratto B, de Souza R B A, Sousa R Jr, Enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated sugarcane straw: kinetic study and semi-mechanistic modeling. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2016, 178(7): 1430–1444

[130] Jin Q, Yang L, Poe N, Integrated processing of plant-derived waste to produce value-added products based on the biorefinery concept. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 2018, 74: 119–131

[131] Huang H, Liu W, Singh V, Effect of harvest moisture content on selected yellow dent corn: dry-grind fermentation characteristics and ddgs composition. Cereal Chemistry, 2012, 89(4): 217–221

[132] Bals B, Dale B, Balan V. Enzymatic hydrolysis of distiller’s dry grain and solubles (DDGS) using ammonia fiber expansion pretreatment. Energy & Fuels, 2006, 20(6): 2732–2736

[133] Zaini N A B M, Chatzifragkou A, Charalampopoulos D. Microbial production of d-lactic acid from dried distiller’s grains with solubles. Engineering in Life Sciences, 2018

[134] Foo K Y. Value-added utilization of maize cobs waste as an environmental friendly solution for the innovative treatment of carbofuran. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2016, 100: 295–304

[135] Miraboutalebi S M, Nikouzad S K, Peydayesh M, Methylene blue adsorption via maize silk powder: kinetic, equilibrium, thermodynamic studies and residual error analysis. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2017, 106: 191–202

[136] Indah S, Helard D, Sasmita A. Utilization of maize husk (Zea mays L.) as low-cost adsorbent in removal of iron from aqueous solution. Water Science and Technology, 2016, 73(12): 2929–2935

[137] Guyo U, Makawa T, Moyo M, Application of response surface methodology for Cd(II) adsorption on maize tassel-magnetite nanohybrid adsorbent. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2015, 3(4): 2472–2483

[138] Agblevor F A, Ibrahim M M, El-Zawawy W K. Coupled acid and enzyme mediated production of microcrystalline cellulose from corn cob and cotton gin waste. Cellulose (London, England), 2007, 14(3): 247–256

[139] Veljković V B, Biberdžić M O, Banković-Ilić I B, Biodiesel production from corn oil: a review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018, 91: 531–548

[140] Mata T M, Sousa I R B G, Vieira S S, Biodiesel production from corn oil via enzymatic catalysis with ethanol. Energy & Fuels, 2012, 26(5): 3034–3041

[141] Böjti T, Kovöcs K L, Kakuk B, Pretreatment of poultry manure for efficient biogas production as monosubstrate or co-fermentation with maize silage and corn stover. Anaerobe, 2017, 46: 138–145

[142] Samanta A K, Senani S, Kolte A P, Production and in vitro evaluation of xylooligosaccharides generated from corn cobs. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 2012, 90(3): 466–474

[143] Pérez-Rodríguez N, García-Bernet D, Domínguez J M. Extrusion and enzymatic hydrolysis as pretreatments on corn cob for biogas production. Renewable Energy, 2017, 107: 597–603

[144] Xia L, Cen P. Cellulase production by solid state fermentation on lignocellulosic waste from the xylose industry. Process Bioche-mistry, 1999, 34(9): 909–912

[145] Kapoor M, Panwar D, Kaira G S. Bioprocesses for enzyme production using agro-industrial wastes: technical challenges and commercialization potential. In: Dhillon G S, Kaur S, eds. Agro-industrial Wastes as Feedstock for Enzyme Production: Apply and Exploit the Emerging and Valuable Use Options of Waste Biomass. Academic Press, 2016

[146] Talebnia F, Karakashev D, Angelidaki I. Production of bioethanol from wheat straw: an overview on pretreatment, hydrolysis and fermentation. Bioresource Technology, 2010, 101(13): 4744–4753

[147] Ballesteros I, Negro M J, Oliva J M, Ethanol production from steam-explosion pretreated wheat straw. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2006, 130(1-3): 496–508

[148] Mancini G, Papirio S, Lens P N L, Increased biogas production from wheat straw by chemical pretreatments. Renewable Energy, 2018, 119: 608–614

[149] Kaparaju P, Serrano M, Thomsen A B, Bioethanol, biohydrogen and biogas production from wheat straw in a biorefinery concept. Bioresource Technology, 2009, 100(9): 2562–2568

[150] Dang V B H, Doan H D, Dang-Vu T, Equilibrium and kinetics of biosorption of cadmium(II) and copper(II) ions by wheat straw. Bioresource Technology, 2009, 100(1): 211–219

[151] Chen L, Hong F, Yang X, Biotransformation of wheat straw to bacterial cellulose and its mechanism. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 464–468

[152] Chang C, Cen P, Ma X. Levulinic acid production from wheat straw. Bioresource Technology, 2007, 98(7): 1448–1453

[153] Zhang R, Li X, Fadel J G. Oyster mushroom cultivation with rice and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology, 2002, 82(3): 277–284

[154] Pourbafrani M, Forgács G, Horváth I S, Production of biofuels, limonene and pectin from citrus wastes. Bioresource Technology, 2010, 101(11): 4246–4250

[155] Boluda-Aguilar M, López-Gómez A. Production of bioethanol by fermentation of lemon (Citrus limon L.) peel wastes pretreated with steam explosion. Industrial Crops and Products, 2013, 41: 188–197

[156] Muthayya S, Sugimoto J D, Montgomery S, An overview of global rice production, supply, trade, and consumption. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2014, 1324(1): 7–14

[157] Bienvenido J O. Rice straw. Rice Knowledge Bank, 2016, available at the website of knowledgebank

[158] Kogo T, Yoshida Y, Koganei K, Production of rice straw hydrolysis enzymes by the fungi Trichoderma reesei and Humicola insolens using rice straw as a carbon source. Bioresource Technology, 2017, 233: 67–73

[159] Bohlmann G M. Process economic considerations for production of ethanol from biomass feedstocks. Industrial Biotechnology (New Rochelle, N.Y.), 2006, 2(1): 14–20

[160] Pinzi S, Dorado M P. Vegetable-based feedstocks for biofuels production. In: Luque R, Campelo J, Clark J, eds. Handbook of Biofuels Production: Processes and Technologies. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

[161] Saritha M, Arora A, Singh S, Streptomyces griseorubens mediated delignification of paddy straw for improved enzymatic saccharification yields. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 12–17

[162] Tiwari R, Rana S, Singh S, Biological delignification of paddy straw and Parthenium sp. using a novel micromycete Myrothecium roridum LG7 for enhanced saccharification. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 7–11

[163] Moniz P, João L, Duarte L C, Fractionation of hemicelluloses and lignin from rice straw by combining autohydrolysis and optimised mild organosolv delignification. BioResources, 2015, 10(2): 2626–2641

[164] Moniz P, Pereira H, Duarte L C, Hydrothermal production and gel filtration purification of xylo-oligosaccharides from rice straw. Industrial Crops and Products, 2014, 62: 460–465

[165] Mohammadi A, Cowie A L, Cacho O, Biochar addition in rice farming systems: economic and energy benefits. Energy, 2017, 140: 415–425

[166] Do P T M, Ueda T, Kose R, et al. Properties and potential use of biochars from residues of two rice varieties, Japanese Koshihikari and Vietnamese IR50404. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 2019, 21(1): 98–106

[167] Nguyen D H, Zenitova L A, Le Q D, Use of burn rice residues for production of nanosilica. Butlerov Communications, 2019, 57: 155–161

[168] Chen W H, Chen Y C, Lin J G. Evaluation of biobutanol production from non-pretreated rice straw hydrolysate under non-sterile environmental conditions. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 262–268

[169] Kim I, Rehman M S U, Kim K H, Generation of electricity from FeCl₃ pretreatment of rice straw using a fuel cell system. Bioresource Technology, 2013, 135: 635–639

[170] Barana D, Salanti A, Orlandi M, Biorefinery process for the simultaneous recovery of lignin, hemicelluloses, cellulose nanocrystals and silica from rice husk and Arundo donax. Industrial Crops and Products, 2016, 86: 31–39

[171] Rivers D B. Biomass conversion technology: thoughts on the path forward to comercial adoption. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 2012, 6: 246–256

[172] Farias M. Fire hits straw stock of the company Granbio in AL again. 2019–11–28, available at the website of globo

[173] Office of Energy efficiency & renewable energy. POET-DSM: project libert. 2020–4-25, available at the website of Department of Energy

[174] De Corato U, De Bari I, Viola E, Assessing the main opportunities of integrated biorefining from agro-bioenergy co/by-products and agroindustrial residues into high-value added products associated to some emerging markets: a review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018, 88: 326–346

[175] Gibbs H K, Rausch L, Munger J, Brazil’s soy moratorium: supply-chain governance is needed to avoid deforestation. Science, 2015, 347(6220): 377–378

[176] O’Hare M, Delucchi M, Edwards R, Comment on “Indirect land use change for biofuels: testing predictions and improving analytical methodologies” by Kim and Dale: statistical reliability and the definition of the indirect land use change (iLUC) issue. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2011, 35(10): 4485–4487

[177] Hombach L E, Cambero C, Sowlati T, Optimal design of supply chains for second generation biofuels incorporating European biofuel regulations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 133: 565–575

[178] Plevin R J, Jones A D, Torn M S, Greenhouse gas emissions from biofuels’ indirect land use change are uncertain but may be much greater than previously estimated. Environmental Science & Technology, 2010, 44(21): 8015–8021

[179] Kim S, Dale B E. Indirect land use change for biofuels: testing predictions and improving analytical methodologies. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2011, 35(7): 3235–3240

[180] Sorda G, Banse M, Kemfert C. An overview of biofuel policies across the world. Energy Policy, 2010, 38: 6977–6988

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press