A critical review of biochar adsorption mechanisms and performance in soil remediation of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances

Abstract

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent pollutants that threaten ecosystems and human health. This review examines the adsorption performance and mechanisms of biochar in PFAS-contaminated soils, emphasizing the effects of different modification strategies. Unmodified biochar typically exhibits equilibrium adsorption capacities of 10–200 mg/g for perfluorooctanoic acid (pH 6–8, adsorbent dosage 1 g/L), substantially lower than commercial activated carbon (> 800 mg/g). Acid–base treatments and metal or mineral loading generally enhance adsorption by 2–8 fold. Mechanistically, long-chain PFAS (C₈–C₁₂) are predominantly captured via hydrophobic partitioning and hydrogen bonding, whereas short-chain PFAS (C₄–C₆) rely on electrostatic attraction and surface complexation. Biochar modifications adjust surface area, functional groups, and charge distribution, enabling selective adsorption. Mineral- or metal-loaded biochars promote electrostatic interactions and regeneration, while oxidant or acid treatments reinforce hydrophobic and hydrogen-bonding effects. Collectively, this review elucidates the multi-mechanistic and synergistic pathways governing PFAS adsorption by modified biochars and provides a framework for evaluating trade-offs among modification strategies and designing high-efficiency materials for environmental remediation.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances / Biochar / Soil remediation / Adsorption mechanisms / Modification techniques

Highlight

	● Modified biochar boosts PFAS adsorption 2–8× (7.2× via H3PO4), above 10–200 mg/g.
	● Soil PFOA up to 128 μg/kg within 1 km of factories shows direct PFAS sources.
	● Adsorption varies by chain: hydrophobic (C8–C12) vs electrostatic (C4–C6).
	● Mineral or metal loading boosts electrostatic binding and regeneration.
	● Future work aims at soil stability and coupled adsorption–degradation.

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