Gradient transfer of global solid waste trade: theories, facts and implications

Abstract

The global solid waste trade has undergone significant transformations in recent decades, marked by increasing asymmetries between exporting and importing countries. This paper investigates the spatiotemporal, institutional, and environmental evolution of this network. Drawing on theories such as gradient industry transfer, the pollution haven hypothesis, and socioeconomic metabolism, we visualize multi-decade trade data and summarize key policy and institutional trends to identify the shifting trade patterns. A core focus is the dramatic shift of China’s role: from being a dominant importer of recyclable materials to implementing strict import bans. This policy change has reshaped the network of global waste flows and calls for improving the global solid waste governance system. Following China’s ban, waste flows shifted to countries in Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where comprehensive regulatory and waste management systems are still under development. These findings underscore the urgent need for international cooperation to enhance local waste management capacities. We propose a transition toward differentiated and cooperative policy frameworks that harmonize global standards with localized implementation abilities. This study concludes with recommendations for integrating environmental justice, regulatory coherence, and long-term resilience into the governance of global solid waste trade.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Global solid waste trade / Gradient transfer / Waste import ban / Circular economy / Waste management

Highlight

	● Proposes a gradient transfer framework to analyze global solid waste trade dynamics.
	● Reveals post-ban waste diversion from China to Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
	● China’s import ban has reshaped the network of global waste flows.

References

[1] Agboola O , Babatunde D E , Fayomi O S I , Sadiku E R , Popoola P , Moropeng L , Yahaya A , Mamudu O A . (2020). A review on the impact of mining operation: monitoring, assessment and management. Results in Engineering, 8: 100181

[2] Al-Alimi S , Yusuf N K , Ghaleb A M , Lajis M A , Shamsudin S , Zhou W , Altharan Y M , Abdulwahab H S , Saif Y , Didane D H . et al. (2024). Recycling aluminium for sustainable development: a review of different processing technologies in green manufacturing. Results in Engineering, 23: 102566

[3] Allevi E , Gnudi A , Konnov I V , Oggioni G . (2021). Municipal solid waste management in circular economy: a sequential optimization model. Energy Economics, 100: 105383

[4] Andeobu L , Wibowo S , Grandhi S . (2023). Informal e-waste recycling practices and environmental pollution in Africa: what is the way forward?. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 252: 114192

[5] Arya S , Kumar S . (2020). E-waste in India at a glance: current trends, regulations, challenges and management strategies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 271: 122707

[6] Awino F B , Apitz S E . (2024). Solid waste management in the context of the waste hierarchy and circular economy frameworks: an international critical review. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 20(1): 9–35

[7] Baldassarre B , Carrara S . (2025). Critical raw materials, circular economy, sustainable development: EU policy reflections for future research and innovation. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 215: 108060

[8] Bashir M F (2022). Discovering the evolution of Pollution Haven Hypothesis: a literature review and future research agenda. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29(32): 48210–48232

[9] Borrelle S B , Ringma J , Law K L , Monnahan C C , Lebreton L , McGivern A , Murphy E , Jambeck J , Leonard G H , Hilleary M A . et al. (2020). Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. Science, 369(6510): 1515–1518

[10] Bourtsalas A C , Yepes I M , Tian Y X . (2023). U.S. plastic waste exports: a state-by-state analysis pre- and post-China import ban. Journal of Environmental Management, 344: 118604

[11] Brooks A L , Wang S L , Jambeck J R . (2018). The Chinese import ban and its impact on global plastic waste trade. Science Advances, 4(6): eaat0131

[12] Browning S , Beymer-Farris B , Seay J R . (2021). Addressing the challenges associated with plastic waste disposal and manage-ment in developing countries. Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, 32: 100682

[13] Cai X , Che X H , Zhu B Z , Zhao J , Xie R . (2018). Will developing countries become pollution havens for developed countries? An empirical investigation in the Belt and Road. Journal of Cleaner Production, 198: 624–632

[14] Cao J , Lu B , Chen Y Y , Zhang X M , Zhai G S , Zhou G G , Jiang B X , Schnoor J L . (2016). Extended producer responsibility system in China improves e-waste recycling: government policies, enterprise, and public awareness. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 62: 882–894

[15] Chan J K YWong M H (2013). A review of environmental fate, body burdens, and human health risk assessment of PCDD/Fs at two typical electronic waste recycling sites in China. Science of the Total Environment, 463–464: 463–464

[16] Chen L , Yang M Y , Chen Z H , Xie Z L , Huang L P , Osman A I , Farghali M , Sandanayake M , Liu E G , Ahn Y H . et al. (2024a). Conversion of waste into sustainable construction materials: a review of recent developments and prospects. Materials Today Sustainability, 27: 100930

[17] Chen Y D , Wang H , Ghofrani-Isfahani P , Gu L , Liu X G , Dai X H . (2024b). Electronic regulation to achieve efficient anaerobic digestion of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW): strategies, challenges and potential solutions. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 18(4): 52

[18] Cole M A , Elliott R J R , Okubo T . (2010). Trade, environmental regulations and industrial mobility: an industry-level study of Japan. Ecological Economics, 69(10): 1995–2002

[19] Compañero R J , Feldmann A , Tilliander A . (2021). Circular steel: how information and actor incentives impact the recyclability of scrap. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 7(4): 1654–1670

[20] Copeland B R , Taylor M S . (2004). Trade, growth, and the environment. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(1): 7–71

[21] Corsi G , Guarino R , Muñoz-Ulecia E , Sapio A , Franzese P P . (2024). Uneven development and core-periphery dynamics: a journey into the perspective of ecologically unequal exchange. Environmental Science & Policy, 157: 103778

[22] Cotta B . (2020). What goes around, comes around? Access and allocation problems in Global North-South waste trade. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 20(2): 255–269

[23] D’Adamo I , Mazzanti M , Morone P , Rosa P . (2022). Assessing the relation between waste management policies and circular economy goals. Waste Management, 154: 27–35

[24] Dang V H , Gam P T , Son N T X . (2021). Vietnam’s regulations to prevent pollution from plastic waste: a review based on the circular economy approach. Journal of Environmental Law, 33(1): 137–166

[25] Das S , Lee S H , Kumar P , Kim K H , Lee S S , Bhattacharya S S . (2019). Solid waste management: scope and the challenge of sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 228: 658–678

[26] Dean J M , Lovely M E , Wang H . (2009). Are foreign investors attracted to weak environmental regulations? Evaluating the evidence from China. Journal of Development Economics, 90(1): 1–13

[27] Dehkordi M M , Nodeh Z P , Dehkordi K S , Salmanvandi H , Khorjestan R R , Ghaffarzadeh M . (2024). Soil, air, and water pollution from mining and industrial activities: sources of pollution, environmental impacts, and prevention and control methods. Results in Engineering, 23: 102729

[28] Dowling M . (1997). Industrialization in Asia: a tale of two regions. Journal of Asian Economics, 8(2): 295–313

[29] Duan X , Dai S L , Yang R , Duan Z W , Tang Y H . (2020). Environmental collaborative governance degree of government, corporation, and public. Sustainability, 12(3): 1138

[30] Elliott R J R , Zhou Y . (2013). Environmental regulation induced foreign direct investment. Environmental and Resource Economics, 55(1): 141–158

[31] Escamilla-García P E (2024). Landfills in developing economies: drivers, challenges, and sustainable solutions. In: Anouzla A, Souabi S, eds. Technical Landfills and Waste Management. Cham: Springer, 157–170

[32] Fan Y P , Zhang C , Fang C L . (2025). Informing urban sustainability through cross-scale urban metabolism: insights from Shanghai and the Yangtze River Delta. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 112: 107863

[33] Fayshal A . (2024). Current practices of plastic waste management, environmental impacts, and potential alternatives for reducing pollution and improving management. Heliyon, 10(23): e40838

[34] Fekete H , Kuramochi T , Roelfsema M , Den Elzen M , Forsell N , Höhne N , Luna L , Hans F , Sterl S , Olivier J . et al. (2021). A review of successful climate change mitigation policies in major emitting economies and the potential of global replication. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 137: 110602

[35] Fischer-Kowalski M , Haberl H . (2007). Socioecological Transitions and Global Change. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. Cheltenham,

[36] Fossgard-Moser TTsai TLu Y (2012). Strategic responses of multinational corporations to environmental protection in emerging economies: the case of the petroleum and chemical sectors in Latin America and the Greater China region. In: Vazquez-Brust D A, Sarkis J, eds. Green Growth: Managing the Transition to a Sustainable Economy. Dordrecht: Springer, 147–171

[37] Gaur V K , Sharma P , Sirohi R , Awasthi M K , Dussap C G , Pandey A . (2020). Assessing the impact of industrial waste on environment and mitigation strategies: a comprehensive review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 398: 123019

[38] Giljum S , Dittrich M , Lieber M , Lutter S . (2014). Global patterns of material flows and their socio-economic and environmental implications: a MFA study on all countries world-wide from 1980 to 2009. Resources, 3(1): 319–339

[39] Gillingham K , Stock J H . (2018). The cost of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 32(4): 53–72

[40] Grandhi S P , Dagwar P P , Dutta D . (2024). Policy pathways to sustainable E-waste management: a global review. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 16: 100473

[41] Grant R , Oteng-Ababio M . (2016). The global transformation of materials and the emergence of informal urban mining in Accra, Ghana. Africa Today, 62(4): 3–20

[42] Greenpeace Malaysia . (2019). The Recycling Myth: Malaysia and the Broken Global Recycling System. Kuala Lumpur: Greenpeace Malaysia. ,

[43] Gu B X , Tang X Y , Liu L X , Li Y Y , Fujiwara T , Sun H H , Gu A J , Yao Y B , Duan R Y , Song J . et al. (2021). The recyclable waste recycling potential towards zero waste cities - a comparison of three cities in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 295: 126358

[44] Guo W , Xi B D , Huang C H , Li J X , Tang Z R , Li W , Ma C Y , Wu W X . (2021). Solid waste management in China: policy and driving factors in 2004–2019. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 173: 105727

[45] Haberl H , Wiedenhofer D , Pauliuk S , Krausmann F , Müller D B , Fischer-Kowalski M . (2019). Contributions of sociometabolic research to sustainability science. Nature Sustainability, 2(3): 173–184

[46] Hagelüken C , Goldmann D . (2022). Recycling and circular economy—towards a closed loop for metals in emerging clean technologies. Mineral Economics, 35(3): 539–562

[47] Hahladakis J N , Iacovidou E . (2019). An overview of the challenges and trade-offs in closing the loop of post-consumer plastic waste (PCPW): focus on recycling. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 380: 120887

[48] Han Q J , Deng C Y . (2025). Evaluating the development of China’s modern industrial system. Finance Research Letters, 74: 106676

[49] Hao M , Tang L B , Wang P , Wang H M , Wang Q C , Dai T , Chen W Q . (2023). Mapping China’s copper cycle from 1950–2015: role of international trade and secondary resources. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 188: 106700

[50] Hara K , Yabar H . (2012). Historical evolution and development of waste management and recycling systems-analysis of Japan’s experiences. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 2(4): 296–307

[51] Harmaji A , Jafari R , Simard G . (2024). Valorization of residue from aluminum industries: a review. Materials, 17(21): 5152

[52] Hasii O , Gasii G . (2024). Coal mining and water resources: impacts, challenges, and strategies for sustainable environmental management. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1348: 012017

[53] Herrador M , De Jong W , Nasu K , Granrath L . (2023). The rising phenomenon of circular cities in Japan. Case studies of Kamikatsu, Osaki and Kitakyushu. Science of the Total Environment, 894: 165052

[54] Hettige H , Mani M , Wheeler D . (2000). Industrial pollution in economic development: the environmental Kuznets curve revisited. Journal of Development Economics, 62(2): 445–476

[55] Hornborg A . (1998). Towards an ecological theory of unequal exchange: articulating world system theory and ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 25(1): 127–136

[56] Huisman M , Plaat A , Van Rijn J N . (2024). Understanding transfer learning and gradient-based meta-learning techniques. Machine Learning, 113(7): 4113–4132

[57] Ishimura Y , Ichinose D , Nomura K . (2025). Plastic waste trade and international agreements. Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 27(3): 357–376

[58] Jagun Z T , Daud D , Ajayi O M , Samsudin S , Jubril A J , Rahman M S A . (2023). Waste management practices in developing countries: a socio-economic perspective. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(55): 116644–116655

[59] Kamsook S , Phongphiphat A , Towprayoon S , Vinitnantharat S . (2023). Investigation of plastic waste management in Thailand using material flow analysis. Waste Management & Research: the Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy, 41(4): 924–935

[60] Kaza S, Yao L C, Bhada-Tata P, Van Woerden F, Levine D (2018). What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2018. Genver: World Bank Publications

[61] Kellenberg D . (2010). Consumer waste, backhauling, and pollution havens. Journal of Applied Economics, 13(2): 283–304

[62] Kellenberg D . (2015). The economics of the international trade of waste. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 7: 109–125

[63] Kellenberg D , Levinson A . (2014). Waste of effort? International environmental agreements. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 1(1−2): 135–169

[64] Khan S A . (2020). Clearly hazardous, obscurely regulated: lessons from the Basel Convention on waste trade. AJIL Unbound, 114: 200–205

[65] Kibria G , Masuk N I , Safayet R , Nguyen H Q , Mourshed M . (2023). Plastic waste: challenges and opportunities to mitigate pollution and effective management. International Journal of Environmental Research, 17(1): 20

[66] Kitole F A , Ojo T O , Emenike C U , Khumalo N Z , Elhindi K M , Kassem H S . (2024). The impact of poor waste management on public health initiatives in shanty towns in Tanzania. Sustainability, 16(24): 10873

[67] Kojima M , Yoshida A , Sasaki S . (2009). Difficulties in applying extended producer responsibility policies in developing countries: case studies in e-waste recycling in China and Thailand. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 11(3): 263–269

[68] Krausmann F , Wiedenhofer D , Lauk C , Haas W , Tanikawa H , Fishman T , Miatto A , Schandl H , Haberl H . (2017). Global socioeconomic material stocks rise 23-fold over the 20th century and require half of annual resource use. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(8): 1880–1885

[69] Kumari TRaghubanshi A S (2023). Waste management practices in the developing nations: challenges and opportunities. In: Singh P, Verma P, Singh R, Ahamad A, Batalhão A C S, eds. Waste Management and Resource Recycling in the Developing World. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 773–797

[70] Lebreton L , Andrady A . (2019). Future scenarios of global plastic waste generation and disposal. Palgrave Communications, 5(1): 6

[71] Lee J , Choi H , Kim J . (2024). Environmental and economic impacts of e-waste recycling: a systematic review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 494: 152917

[72] Lee R P , Meyer B , Huang Q L , Voss R . (2020). Sustainable waste management for zero waste cities in China: potential, challenges and opportunities. Clean Energy, 4(3): 169–201

[73] Lenkiewicz . (2024). Global Waste Management Outlook 2024: Beyond an Age of Waste: Turning Rubbish into a Resource. United Nations Environment Programme,

[74] Lepawsky J (2018). Reassembling Rubbish: Worlding Electronic Waste. Cambridge: MIT Press

[75] Levinson A (2018). Pollution haven hypothesis. In: Macmillan Publishers Ltd, ed. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 10449–10454

[76] Li B W , Alleyne A , Zhang Z Y , Mu Y F . (2021). Sustainability and waste imports in China: pollution haven or resources hunting. Sustainability, 13(2): 932

[77] Li H L , Jiang X . (2021). Transboundary inflow of solid waste: governance and improvement path in China. Chinese Journal of Population, Resources and Environment, 19(2): 182–192

[78] Li Y S , Shan G J , Hao S S , Li J , Li J H . (2025). Systemic governance and circular economy synergies: a multidimensional analysis of China’s “Zero-waste Cities” initiative. Circular Economy, 4(3): 100153

[79] Li Z , Zhou S J , Zhang Z . (2023). The location choice and survival of polluting firms under environmental regulation in urban agglomerations of China. Sustainability, 15(18): 13711

[80] Lin C , Paengsri P , Yang Y W . (2023). Impact of China’s National Sword Policy on waste import: a difference-in-differences approach. Economic Analysis and Policy, 78: 887–903

[81] Lin S Y , Ali M U , Zheng C M , Cai Z W , Wong M H . (2022). Toxic chemicals from uncontrolled e-waste recycling: exposure, body burden, health impact. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 426: 127792

[82] Liu C , Hotta Y , Santo A , Hengesbaugh M , Watabe A , Totoki Y , Allen D , Bengtsson M . (2016). Food waste in Japan: trends, current practices and key challenges. Journal of Cleaner Production, 133: 557–564

[83] Liu D J , Wu J Y , Chen Y C , Xiang S L . (2024). Reconsidering banning the imports of waste paper: the implications for the environmental, economic and health impacts. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 49: 431–445

[84] Liu G Y , Wu M W . (2025). Thermodynamic-based ecological scaling theory in urban metabolic framework: a review. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 19(1): 4

[85] Liu Z , Adams M , Walker T R . (2018). Are exports of recyclables from developed to developing countries waste pollution transfer or part of the global circular economy?. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 136: 22–23

[86] Liu Z , Xu Y , Adams M , Liu W , Walker T R , Domenech T , Bleischwitz R , Geng Y . (2022). Comparative analysis of the contribution of municipal waste management policies to GHG reductions in China. Waste Management Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy, 41: 860–870

[87] Makhathini T P , Bwapwa J K , Mtsweni S . (2023). Various options for mining and metallurgical waste in the circular economy: a review. Sustainability, 15(3): 2518

[88] Manikandan S , Inbakandan D , Valli Nachiyar C , Namasivayam S K R . (2023). Towards sustainable metal recovery from e-waste: a mini review. Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 2: 100001

[89] Marchenko VMilović NHrechko AKorohodova ODergaliuk BElrabay’a (2022)D . Impact of migration processes on changes in the volume and redistribution of municipal waste in European countries. In: 2022 IEEE 3rd International Conference on System Analysis & Intelligent Computing (SAIC). Kyiv: IEEE, 1–5

[90] Mocholi-Arce M , Sala-Garrido R , Molinos-Senante M , Maziotis A . (2025). A comprehensive evaluation of eco-productivity of the municipal solid waste service in Chile. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 19(1): 11

[91] Moshkal M , Akhapov Y , Ogihara A . (2024). Sustainable waste management in Japan: challenges, achievements, and future prospects: a review. Sustainability, 16(17): 7347

[92] Nasrollahi Z , Hashemi M S , Bameri S , Taghvaee V M . (2020). Environmental pollution, economic growth, population, industrialization, and technology in weak and strong sustai-nability: using STIRPAT model. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(2): 1105–1122

[93] Njoku A , Agbalenyo M , Laude J , Ajibola T F , Attah M A , Sarko S B . (2024). Environmental injustice and electronic waste in Ghana: challenges and recommendations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(1): 25

[94] Oteng-Ababio M (2012). Electronic waste management in Ghana-issues and practices. In: Curkovic S, ed. Sustainable Development: Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management. Rijeka: InTech

[95] Pauliuk S , Hertwich E G . (2015). Socioeconomic metabolism as paradigm for studying the biophysical basis of human societies. Ecological Economics, 119: 83–93

[96] Perkins D N , Brune Drisse M N , Nxele T , Sly P D . (2014). E-waste: a global hazard. Annals of Global Health, 80(4): 286–295

[97] Pilapitiya P G C N T , Ratnayake A S . (2024). The world of plastic waste: a review. Cleaner Materials, 11: 100220

[98] Portugaise M K , Jóhannsdóttir L , Murakami S . (2023). Extended producer responsibility’s effect on producers’ electronic waste management practices in Japan and Canada: drivers, barriers, and potential of the urban mine. Discovery Sustainability, 4(1): 8

[99] Priyashantha A K H , Pratheesh N , Pretheeba P . (2022). E-waste scenario in South-Asia: an emerging risk to environment and public health. Environmental Analysis, Health and Toxicology, 37(3): e2022022

[100] Pu Y , Wu G , Tang B Y , Xu L , Wang B . (2019). Structural features of global recycling trade networks and dynamic evolution patterns. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 151: 104445

[101] Qu S NLyu T (2019). Does the upgrading of industrial structure mean service sector is more important? The influence of the interactive development of manufacturing and service sectors on China’s economic growth. In: He D X, Wang C Y, eds. A New Era: China’s Economy Globalizes. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 137–154

[102] Raabe D , Ponge D , Uggowitzer P J , Roscher M , Paolantonio M , Liu C L , Antrekowitsch H , Kozeschnik E , Seidmann D , Gault B . et al. (2022). Making sustainable aluminum by recycling scrap: the science of “dirty” alloys. Progress in Materials Science, 128: 100947

[103] Rantanen J , Muchiri F , Lehtinen S . (2020). Decent work, ILO’s response to the globalization of working life: basic concepts and global implementation with special reference to occupational health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(10): 3351

[104] Rathore P , Sarmah S P . (2020). Economic, environmental and social optimization of solid waste management in the context of circular economy. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 145: 106510

[105] Raubenheimer K , McIlgorm A . (2018). Can the Basel and Stockholm Conventions provide a global framework to reduce the impact of marine plastic litter?. Marine Policy, 96: 285–290

[106] Rice J . (2007). Ecological unequal exchange: international trade and uneven utilization of environmental space in the world system. Social Forces, 85(3): 1369–1392

[107] Sarpong S . (2020). Counting the cost: Malaysia’s push-back begins over overseas waste dumping. Society, 57(1): 77–84

[108] Schaffartzik A , Mayer A , Gingrich S , Eisenmenger N , Loy C , Krausmann F . (2014). The global metabolic transition: regional patterns and trends of global material flows, 1950–2008. Global Environmental Change, 26: 87–97

[109] Schenck C J , Blaauw P F , Swart E C , Viljoen J M M , Mudavanhu N . (2019). The management of South Africa’s landfills and waste pickers on them: impacting lives and livelihoods. Development Southern Africa, 36(1): 80–98

[110] Shang D , Diao G , Zhao X D . (2020). Have China’s regulations on imported waste paper improved its quality. Forest Policy and Economics, 119: 102287

[111] Shi J J , Zhang C , Chen W Q . (2021). The expansion and shrinkage of the international trade network of plastic wastes affected by China’s waste management policies. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 25: 187–197

[112] Shi X Z , Zhang M A . (2023). Waste import and air pollution: evidence from China’s waste import ban. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 120: 102837

[113] Snehalatha BJamuna Bai AAnil Kumar K MSachan DPatil S J (2025). Municipal solid waste recycling and management: formal and informal sectors. In: Pandey A, Suthar S S, Amesho K T T, eds. Solid Waste Management: A Roadmap for Sustainable Environmental Practices and Circular Economy. Cham: Springer, 329–353

[114] Song N , McLellan I , Liu W , Wang Z H , Hursthouse A . (2023). The waste ban in China: what happened next? Assessing the impact of new policies on the waste management sector in China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45(3): 1117–1131

[115] Song Q B , Li J H . (2014). Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: a systematic review. Waste Management, 34(12): 2587–2594

[116] Stoett P , Scrich V M , Elliff C I , Andrade M M , Grilli N de M , Turra A . (2024). Global plastic pollution, sustainable development, and plastic justice. World Development, 184, 106756. ,

[117] Sugihara K (2019). Multiple paths to industrialization: a global context of the rise of emerging states. In: Otsuka K, Sugihara K, eds. Paths to the Emerging State in Asia and Africa. Singapore: Springer, 1–33

[118] Sun M . (2019). The effect of border controls on waste imports: evidence from China’s Green Fence campaign. China Economic Review, 54: 457–472

[119] Sun N , Tabata T . (2021). Environmental impact assessment of China’s waste import ban policies: an empirical analysis of waste plastics importation from Japan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 329: 129606

[120] Sun Y , Liu S , Wang P , Jian X M , Liao X W , Chen W Q . (2022). China’s roadmap to plastic waste management and associated economic costs. Journal of Environmental Management, 309: 114686

[121] Sund J H , Albizzati P F , Scheutz C , Tonini D . (2025). Comprehensive assessment of environmental and economic impacts of the entire EU waste management system. Waste Management, 204: 114910

[122] Taylor M S . (2004). Unbundling the pollution haven hypothesis. Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy, 4(2): 8

[123] Thapa K , Vermeulen W J , Deutz P , Olayide O E . (2023). Transboundary movement of waste review: from binary towards a contextual framing. Waste Management & Research, 41(1): 52–67

[124] Tian X , Zheng J X , Hu L , Liu Y , Wen H W , Dong X S . (2021). Impact of China’s waste import policy on the scrap copper recovery pattern and environmental benefits. Waste Management, 135: 287–297

[125] Tong X , Wang T , Chen Y G , Wang Y T . (2018). Towards an inclusive circular economy: quantifying the spatial flows of e-waste through the informal sector in China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 135: 163–171

[126] Torm N , Oehme M . (2024). Social protection and formalization in low- and middle-income countries: a scoping review of the literature. World Development, 181: 106662

[127] Tran T , Goto H , Matsuda T . (2021). The impact of China’s tightening environmental regulations on international waste trade and logistics. Sustainability, 13(2): 987

[128] Unfried K , Wang F C . (2024). Importing air pollution? Evidence from China’s plastic waste imports. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 125: 102996

[129] Wang C , Zhao L F , Lim M K , Chen W Q , Sutherland J W . (2020). Structure of the global plastic waste trade network and the impact of China’s import ban. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 153: 104591

[130] Wang E R , Miao C H , Chen X F . (2022). Circular economy and the changing geography of international trade in plastic waste. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22): 15020

[131] Wang H , Liu H F . (2019). Foreign direct investment, environmental regulation, and environmental pollution: an empirical study based on threshold effects for different Chinese regions. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(5): 5394–5409

[132] Wen Y . (2021). China’s industrial revolution: a new perspective. China Economic Review, 69: 101671

[133] Wen Z G , Xie Y L , Chen M H , Dinga C D . (2021). China’s plastic import ban increases prospects of environmental impact mitigation of plastic waste trade flow worldwide. Nature Communications, 12(1): 425

[134] Wikurendra E A , Ferto I , Nagy I , Nurika G . (2022). Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of waste management with circular economy principles in developing countries: a systematic review. Environmental Quality Management, 32(1): 87–94

[135] Xiao S J , Dong H J , Geng Y , Brander M . (2018). An overview of China’s recyclable waste recycling and recommendations for integrated solutions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 134: 112–120

[136] Xiong Y Y , Guo H X , Nor D D M M , Song A D , Dai L . (2023). Mineral resources depletion, environmental degradation, and exploitation of natural resources: COVID-19 aftereffects. Resources Policy, 85: 103907

[137] Xu W , Chen W Q , Jiang D Q , Zhang C , Ma Z J , Ren Y , Shi L . (2020). Evolution of the global polyethylene waste trade system. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, 6(1): 1756925

[138] Yang G , Zhou C B , Wang W L , Ma S J , Liu H J , Liu Y J , Zhao Z L . (2020). Recycling sustainability of waste paper industry in Beijing City: an analysis based on value chain and GIS model. Waste Management, 106: 62–70

[139] Yang MXu LJin H (2012). Empirical analysis of industrial gradient transfer. In: Proceedings of the 2012 Fourth International Conference on Multimedia Information Networking and Security. Nanjing: IEEE, 773–777

[140] Yang X , Zhang C , Li X Y , Cao Z , Wang P , Wang H M , Liu G , Xia Z Q , Zhu D J , Chen W Q . (2024). Multinational dynamic steel cycle analysis reveals sequential decoupling between material use and economic growth. Ecological Economics, 217: 108092

[141] Yatoo A M , Hamid B , Sheikh T A , Ali S , Bhat S A , Ramola S , Ali N , Baba Z A , Kumar S . (2024). Global perspective of municipal solid waste and landfill leachate: generation, composition, eco-toxicity, and sustainable management strategies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(16): 23363–23392

[142] Yevle D V , Mann P S . (2025). Artificial intelligence based classification for waste management: a survey based on taxonomy, classification & future direction. Computer Science Review, 56: 100723

[143] Zhang D H , Li J W , Lou S . (2024a). Reducing environmental pollution: what affects the waste sorting of Chinese urban residents? The theory of planned behavior with community convenience. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 26(4): 2084–2098

[144] Zhang K H (2017). Urbanization and industrial development in China. In: Tang Z L, ed. China’s Urbanization and Socio-economic Impact. Singapore: Springer, 21–35

[145] Zhang Z C , Chen Z H , Zhang J W , Liu Y F , Chen L , Yang M Y , Osman A I , Farghali M , Liu E G , Hassan D . et al. (2024b). Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing regions: a comprehensive review and future perspectives for Asia and Africa. Science of the Total Environment, 930: 172794

[146] Zheng Q W , Zhou Y , Liu X , Liu M , Liao L B , Lv G C . (2024). Environmental hazards and comprehensive utilization of solid waste coal gangue. Progress in Natural Science: Materials International, 34(2): 223–239

[147] Zhou J , Li L , Wang Q , Fan Y V , Liu X , Klemeš J J , Wang X , Tong Y W , Jiang P . (2022). Household waste management in Singapore and Shanghai: experiences, challenges and opportunities from the perspective of emerging megacities. Waste Management, 144: 221–232

[148] Zisopoulos F K , Fath B D , Tong X , De Jong M . (2025). Network properties of the global waste trade. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 25: 100550

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press 2026