Passive samplers for detecting viruses in aquatic environments: progress and future perspectives

Abstract

Viruses in aquatic environments pose a significant public health risk. Therefore, efficient virus sampling and accurate detection are crucial for the timely assessment of contamination and the interruption of transmission chains. Passive sampling overcomes traditional active sampling drawbacks through its low cost, high efficiency, sensitivity, and long-term monitoring abilities. Passive sampling has been successfully applied in various aquatic environments, including wastewater, surface water, groundwater, and seawater. In this work, first, we describe application scenarios for passive samplers and analyse the adsorption effects of different adsorbent materials, such as cotton-based substrates and negatively charged filter membranes. Second, we present two major detection methods, namely, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gene sequencing, and we review the applications of the isothermal amplification of nucleic acid and the gene editing-clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas technique. Last, we consider the potential future integration of microfluidic and paper-based devices with these molecular tools to provide references for onsite rapid detection on the basis of passive sampling, thereby increasing the efficiency and practicality of this approach in environmental and public health monitoring.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Passive sampler / Viruses / Adsorbent materials / Aquatic environment / Wastewater-based surveillance

Highlight

	● Passive sampling techniques are widely used for monitoring viruses in wastewater.
	● Cotton-based and electronegative membranes are the main adsorption materials.
	● RT-qPCR and gene sequencing are the most common virus detection methods.
	● Portable devices have potential for onsite detection of passively collected samples

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