Insights into the occurrence, ecotoxicity, and biodegradation of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid in the marine environment

Abstract

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), a class of synthetic chemicals with exceptional chemical and thermal stability, have emerged as persistent environmental contaminants with significant bioaccumulative potential, posing substantial risks to ecosystems and human health. Although the production of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) has been phased out across the world, these compounds persist ubiquitously in all kinds of environmental compartments, with marine ecosystems serving as their ultimate sink. Through a search process, this review identified 420 articles published from September 2004 to September 2024 that systematically examined the distribution patterns and ecotoxicological effects of PFOA and PFOS in marine environments, particularly focusing on their bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity through marine trophic webs. While numerous physico-chemical approaches for remediation of PFAS have been proposed, their practical implementation is limited by substantial economic costs, excessive energy requirements, and low mineralization efficiency. In this context, microbial degradation emerges as a promising, eco-friendly alternative for mitigation of PFAS. Recent advancements in microbial degradation pathways and mechanisms for PFOA and PFOS are critically assessed, while emphasizing the current limitations and prospects of bioremediation strategies in marine environments. Furthermore, potential solutions and outline future research directions are proposed to enhance the efficacy of biological approaches for management of marine PFAS contamination.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid / Marine environment / Occurrence / Ecotoxicity / Biodegradation pathways

Highlight

	● High concentrations of PFOA and PFOS were reported especially in Bohai Sea.
	● PFOS exhibits generally higher marine bioaccumulation than PFOA.
	● PFOA and PFOS can cause various severe chronic toxicity to marine organisms.
	● Pseudomonas sp. and Acidimicrobium sp. degrade PFOA and PFOS effectively.
	● Identifying biodegradation intermediates and enzymes is a research priority.

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