Disparities in carbon emissions across households: insights from daily diet

Abstract

This study examines household food carbon emissions in rural China, focusing on the inequality of these emissions and the influence of household characteristics on their variation. Our findings indicate that the average food consumption per rural household is 1031.66 kg. Among all food types, pork contributes the highest share of carbon emissions at 39.75%, followed by beef and mutton at 15.14%, while milk accounts for the lowest share at just 1.38%. Additionally, as household income increases, both food consumption and associated carbon emissions rise accordingly. The food-related carbon emissions tend to be higher in households that are more educated, younger, and larger in size. There are notable regional and income disparities in rural food-related carbon emissions. The regional inequalities appear primarily driven by interactions between different regions, while income inequality is influenced by both intra-group disparities and overlaps among income groups. The results from our threshold regression suggest that carbon emissions are particularly elevated in households where the head has a college-level education or higher, is aged between 32.80 and 33.25 years, and has a household size of three to five members. It is essential to develop and implement flexible policies aimed at reducing the consumption of high-carbon foods. By taking these steps, we can work toward a more sustainable future and promote greater equity in food-related carbon emissions.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Carbon emissions / Emission inequality / Daily diet / Household income / Gini coefficient / Threshold effect

Highlight

	● Higher income levels lead to increased food consumption and carbon emissions.
	● Carbon emissions from food consumption reflect household structural patterns.
	● Carbon emissions from household food consumption vary by region and income.
	● Carbon emissions from household food consumption demonstrate a threshold effect.

References

[1] Abdul-Rahaman A, Abdulai A. (2020). Farmer groups, collective marketing and smallholder farm performance in rural Ghana. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies, 10(5): 511–527

[2] Aprile M C, Punzo G. (2022). How environmental sustainability labels affect food choices: assessing consumer preferences in southern Italy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 332: 130046

[3] Chen F, Wei T, Zhu N. (2023). Determinants of consumption structure of livestock products among rural chinese residents: household characteristics and regional heterogeneity. Agriculture, 13(9): 1839

[4] Chen P J, Antonelli M. (2020). Conceptual models of food choice: influential factors related to foods, individual differences, and society. Foods, 9(12): 1898

[5] Cheng X, Chang S. (2022). The research on sliced boiled chicken. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, 12(2): 167–173

[6] Dagum C. (1997). A new approach to the decomposition of the Gini income inequality ratio. Empirical Economics, 22(4): 515–531

[7] Dong H, Xue M, Xiao Y, Liu Y. (2021). Do carbon emissions impact the health of residents? Considering China’s industrialization and urbanization. Science of the Total Environment, 758: 143688

[8] Fan G, Wang X, Zhang L, Zhu H. (2003). Marketization index for China’s provinces. Economic Research Journal, 3: 9–18

[9] Fan J, Zhou L, Zhang Y, Shao S, Ma M. (2021). How does population aging affect household carbon emissions? Evidence from Chinese urban and rural areas. Energy Economics, 100: 105356

[10] Feng W, Cai B, Zhang B. (2020). A Bite of China: food consumption and carbon emission from 1992 to 2007. China Economic Review, 59: 100949

[11] Hansen B E. (1999). Threshold effects in non-dynamic panels: estimation, testing, and inference. Journal of Econometrics, 93(2): 345–368

[12] He G, Geng C, Zhai J, Zhao Y, Wang Q, Jiang S, Zhu Y, Wang L. (2021). Impact of food consumption patterns change on agricultural water requirements: an urban-rural comparison in China. Agricultural Water Management, 243: 106504

[13] Headey D, Hirvonen K. (2023). Higher food prices can reduce poverty and stimulate growth in food production. Nature Food, 4(8): 699–706

[14] Huang S, Yang L, Yang C, Wang D, Li Y. (2024). Obscuring effect of income inequality and moderating role of financial literacy in the relationship between digital finance and China’s household carbon emissions. Journal of Environmental Management, 351: 119927

[15] Jiang L, Shi X, Wu S, Ding B, Chen Y. (2022). What factors affect household energy consumption in mega-cities? A case study of Guangzhou, China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 363: 132388

[16] Jiang S, Chen H, Shan P, Wang X. (2024). Efficacy of informational intervention on food waste: evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Cleaner Production, 443: 141106

[17] Kang X, Du M, Zhou X, Du H, Liu Q, Wang J, Chen L, Yin Y, Zou W, Cui Z. (2024). Intra-rural inequality of diet-related carbon footprint in China. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 106: 107483

[18] Kaufmann L, Mayer A, Matej S, Kalt G, Lau C, Theurl M C, Erb K H. (2022). Regional self-sufficiency: a multi-dimensional analysis relating agricultural production and consumption in the European Union. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 34: 12–25

[19] Kesse-Guyot E, Allès B, Brunin J, Fouillet H, Dussiot A, Berthy F, Perraud E, Hercberg S, Julia C, Mariotti F, Deschasaux-Tanguy M, Srour B, Lairon D, Pointereau P, Baudry J, Touvier M. (2023). Environmental impacts along the value chain from the consumption of ultra-processed foods. Nature Sustainability, 6(2): 192–202

[20] Khan A A, Mei B, Khan S U, Ali M A S, Luo J. (2024). Agri-food evolution and carbon emissions in Chinese residential consumption: a life cycle analysis of urban-rural disparities and socioeconomic influences. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 105: 107387

[21] Kim B F, Santo R E, Scatterday A P, Fry J P, Synk C M, Cebron S R, Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y, De Pee S, Bloem M W. . (2020). Country-specific dietary shifts to mitigate climate and water crises. Global Environmental Change, 62: 101926

[22] Klenert D, Funke F, Cai M. (2023). Meat taxes in Europe can be designed to avoid overburdening low-income consumers. Nature Food, 4(10): 894–901

[23] Klink U, Mata J, Frank R, Schüz B. (2022). Socioeconomic differences in animal food consumption: education rather than income makes a difference. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9: 993379

[24] Li H, Wei X, Chen W. (2025). Digital financial inclusion’s impact on farmers’ income and spatial spillover effects: evidence from Inner Mongolia, China. Heliyon, 11(3): e42155

[25] Li J, Wu Y, Xiao J J. (2020). The impact of digital finance on household consumption: evidence from China. Economic Modelling, 86: 317–326

[26] Li Y, Filimonau V, Wang L, Cheng S. (2022). Inter-and intra-annual changes in food consumption among rural households in East China. Journal of Rural Studies, 95: 109–124

[27] Li Z, Lu Z, Xu L, Shi Y, Ma Q, Wu Y, Cao Y, Sheng B. (2023). Examining the decoupling of economic growth with land expansion and carbon emissions in Zhejiang Province, China. Land, 12(8): 1618

[28] Linschooten J O, Verwijs M H, Beelen J, de Van Der Schueren M A, Roodenburg A J. (2021). Low awareness of community-dwelling older adults on the importance of dietary protein: new insights from four qualitative studies. Journal of Nutritional Science, 10: e102

[29] Liu G, Kuang Z, Tang J, Kuang S, Tian Q, Zou Y, Li Q. (2024). Calculation and utility analysis of lychee life-cycle carbon emissions considering food loss and waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, 434: 140013

[30] Liu G, Zhang F. (2022). China’s carbon inequality of households: perspectives of the aging society and urban-rural gaps. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 185: 106449

[31] Liu X, Tai A P, Chen Y, Zhang L, Shaddick G, Yan X, Lam H M. (2021). Dietary shifts can reduce premature deaths related to particulate matter pollution in China. Nature Food, 2(12): 997–1004

[32] Ma M, Wang H H, Hua Y, Qin F, Yang J. (2021). African swine fever in China: impacts, responses, and policy implications. Food Policy, 102: 102065

[33] Ma S, Deng G, Wang L J, Hu H, Fang X, Jiang J. (2024). Telecoupling between urban expansion and forest ecosystem service loss through cultivated land displacement: a case study of Zhejiang Province, China. Journal of Environmental Management, 357: 120695

[34] MundayP (2019). This too is China: Hui Muslim Culture and the Fulbright Experience at Ningxia University, Narrative Inquiries from Fulbright Lecturers in China. London: Routledge

[35] Peng D, Zhang S, Zhang H, Pang D, Yang Q, Jiang R, Lin Y, Mu Y, Zhu Y. (2021). The oyster fishery in China: trend, concerns and solutions. Marine Policy, 129: 104524

[36] Qiao R, Liu X, Gao S, Lian D, GesangYangji G, Xia L, Zhou S, Ao X, Jiang Q, Wu Z. (2024). Industrialization, urbanization, and innovation: nonlinear drivers of carbon emissions in Chinese cities. Applied Energy, 358: 122598

[37] Qin S, Chen H, Wang H. (2021). Spatial–temporal heterogeneity and driving factors of rural residents’ food consumption carbon emissions in China: based on an ESDA-GWR model. Sustainability, 13(22): 12419

[38] Song Y, Cheng Z. (2024). The impact of welfare design on consumption patterns of the poor: evidence from the recent Dibao reform in rural China. China Economic Review, 87: 102235

[39] Sun M, Chen G, Xu X, Zhang L, Hubacek K, Wang Y. (2021a). Reducing carbon footprint inequality of household consumption in rural areas: analysis from five representative provinces in China. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(17): 11511–11520

[40] SunM, XuX, HuY, RenY, ZhangL, Wang Y (2021b). What differentiates food-related environmental footprints of rural Chinese households? Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 166: 105347

[41] Vatsa P, Li J, Luu P Q, Botero‐R J C. (2023). Internet use and consumption diversity: evidence from rural China. Review of Development Economics, 27(3): 1287–1308

[42] Verma P, Kumari T, Raghubanshi A S. (2021). Energy emissions, consumption and impact of urban households: a review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 147: 111210

[43] Wang L, Huang W, Zhao C H Y, Cui S. (2022). Exploring the environment-nutrition-obesity effects associated with food consumption in different groups in China. Journal of Environmental Management, 317: 115287

[44] Wang R, Deng X, Fang Y, Bai W, Chen J. (2024). Examination of the relationship between agricultural carbon emission efficiency and food quality and safety: from the perspective of environmental regulation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 31(1): 481–493

[45] Wang T, Shen B, Springer C H, Hou J. (2021). What prevents us from taking low-carbon actions? A comprehensive review of influencing factors affecting low-carbon behaviors. Energy Research & Social Science, 71: 101844

[46] Wang Z, Cui C, Peng S. (2019). How do urbanization and consumption patterns affect carbon emissions in China? A decomposition analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production, 211: 1201–1208

[47] Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, Garnett T, Tilman D, DeClerck F, Wood A. . (2019). Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet, 393(10170): 447–492

[48] Xia L, Han Q, Yu S. (2024). Industrial intelligence and industrial structure change: effect and mechanism. International Review of Economics & Finance, 93: 1494–1506

[49] Xie J, Liu X, Luo M, Liu F, Liu S, Zhao Y, Zhang X, Zhao W, Wu F. (2023). Ethnobotanical study of traditional forage plants in the Gansu–Ningxia–Inner Mongolia junction zone: conservation and sustainable utilization for animal husbandry. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 19(1): 53

[50] Xiong X, Zhang L, Hao Y, Zhang P, Chang Y, Liu G. (2020). Urban dietary changes and linked carbon footprint in China: a case study of Beijing. Journal of Environmental Management, 255: 109877

[51] Xiong X, Zhang L, Hao Y, Zhang P, Shi Z, Zhang T. (2022). How urbanization and ecological conditions affect urban diet-linked GHG emissions: new evidence from China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 176: 105903

[52] Xu Y, Geng Y, Gao Z, Xiao S, Zhang C, Zhuang M. (2022). Accounting greenhouse gas emissions of food consumption between urban and rural residents in China: a whole production perspective. Frontiers in Energy, 16(2): 357–374

[53] Yang X, Gao Q, Duan H Zh M, Wang S. (2024). GHG mitigation strategies on China’s diverse dish consumption are key to meet the Paris Agreement targets. Nature Food, 5(5): 1–13

[54] Yang X, Zhang Z, Chen H, Zhao R, Xu Z, Xie A, Che Q. (2019). Assessing the carbon emission driven by the consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods: the case of China. Sustainability, 11(7): 1875

[55] Yu M, Meng B, Li R. (2022). Analysis of China’s urban household indirect carbon emissions drivers under the background of population aging. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 60: 114–125

[56] Yue Q, Xu X, Hillier J, Cheng K, Pan G. (2017). Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture: from farm production to food consumption. Journal of Cleaner Production, 149: 1011–1019

[57] Zhang Y, Wang F, Zhan B. (2023). The impacts of household structure transitions on household carbon emissions in China. Ecological Economics, 206: 107734

[58] Zhao H, Chang J, Havlík P, van Dijk M, Valin H, Janssens C, Ma L, Bai Z, Herrero M, Smith P. . (2021). China’s future food demand and its implications for trade and environment. Nature Sustainability, 4(12): 1042–1051

[59] Zheng H, Long Y, Wood R, Moran D, Zhang Z, Meng J, Feng K, Hertwich E, Guan D. (2022). Ageing society in developed countries challenges carbon mitigation. Nature Climate Change, 12(3): 241–248

[60] Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Zhu X. (2023). The evolution process, characteristics and adjustment of Chinese dietary guidelines: a global perspective. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 193: 106964

[61] Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Zhu X. (2024). Carbon emission effects driven by evolution of Chinese dietary structure from 1987 to 2020. Chinese Geographical Science, 34(1): 181–194

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press 2025