Water resource conservation promotes synergy between economy and environment in China’s northern drylands

Highlights

•Considering evenness provides a more accurate assessment of sustainable development.

•Water resource conservation drives industrial transformation.

•Synergy between economic development and environmental protection is achieved.

•Regional collaboration over water could promote sustainable development in drylands.

Abstract

Water resource availability is the major limiting factor for sustainable development in drylands. Climate change intensifies the conflicting water demands between people and the environment and highlights the importance of effective water resource management for achieving a balance between economic development and environmental protection. In 2008, Inner Mongolia, typical dryland in northern China, proposed strict regulations on water exploitation and utilization aimed at achieving sustainable development. Our study is the first to investigate the effectiveness and performance of these long-standing water conservation regulations. Our analyses found that the regulations drove industrial transformation, evidenced by the decreasing proportion of environmentally harmful industries such as coal and steel, and the increasing proportion of tertiary industries (especially tourism). Following industrial transformation, economic development decoupled from industrial water consumption and subsequently led to reduced negative environmental impacts. Based on these results, adaptive strategies were developed for 12 cities by revealing and integrating their development pathways and relative status in achieving sustainable development. Integration and cooperation between cities were proposed, e.g., a water trade agreement between eastern Inner Mongolia (an economically underdeveloped region with relatively abundant water resources) and central Inner Mongolia (an economically developed region with high water stress). Such an agreement may enable the holistic achievement of sustainable development across regions. By integrating the findings of our research, our study presents a reproducible framework for water-management-based sustainable development strategies in drylands.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Water conservation / Environmental protection / Industry transformation / Evenness / Sustainable development / Dryland

References

[1] Aidt T S (2010). Green taxes: Refunding rules and lobbying. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 60(1): 31–43

[2] An Y K, Lu W X (2018). Hydrogeochemical processes identification and groundwater pollution causes analysis in the northern Ordos Cretaceous Basin, China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 40(4): 1209–1219

[3] Bai Y, Zhao Y, Wang Y, Zhou K (2020). Assessment of ecosystem services and ecological regionalization of grasslands support establishment of ecological security barriers in Northern China (in Chinese). Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 06: 675–689

[4] Briske D D, Zhao M L, Han G D, Xiu C B, Kemp D R, Willms W, Havstad K, Kang L, Wang Z W, Wu J G, Han X G, Bai Y F (2015). Strategies to alleviate poverty and grassland degradation in Inner Mongolia: Intensification vs production efficiency of livestock systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 152: 177–182

[5] Chen J Q, John R, Sun G, Fan P L, Henebry G M, Fernandez-Gimenez M E, Zhang Y Q, Park H, Tian L, Groisman P, Ouyang Z T, Allington G, Wu J G, Shao C L, Amarjargal A, Dong G, Gutman G, Huettmann F, Lafortezza R, Crank C, Qi J G (2018). Prospects for the sustainability of social-ecological systems (SES) on the Mongolian plateau: Five critical issues. Environmental Research Letters, 13(12): 123004

[6] Chen Y, Fei X, Groisman P, Sun Z, Zhang J, Qin Z (2019). Contrasting policy shifts influence the pattern of vegetation production and C sequestration over pasture systems: A regional-scale comparison in Temperate Eurasian Steppe. Agricultural Systems, 176: 102679

[7] Dai G S, Ulgiati S, Zhang Y S, Yu B H, Kang M Y, Jin Y, Dong X B, Zhang X S (2014). The false promises of coal exploitation: How mining affects herdsmen well-being in the grassland ecosystems of Inner Mongolia. Energy Policy, 67: 146–153

[8] Del Grosso S, Parton W, Stohlgren T, Zheng D L, Bachelet D, Prince S, Hibbard K, Olson R (2008). Global potential net primary production predicted from vegetation class, precipitation, and temperature. Ecology, 89(8): 2117–2126

[9] Distefano T, Kelly S (2017). Are we in deep water? Water scarcity and its limits to economic growth. Ecological Economics, 142: 130–147

[10] Dougill A J, Fraser E D G, Reed M S (2010). Anticipating vulnerability to climate change in dryland pastoral systems: using dynamic systems models for the Kalahari. Ecology and Society, 15(2): 17

[11] Feng Q, Tian Y Z, Yu T F, Yin Z L, Cao S X (2019). Combating desertification through economic development in northwestern China. Land Degradation & Development, 30(8): 910– 917

[12] Feng X, Liu G, Chen J M, Chen M, Liu J, Ju W M, Sun R, Zhou W (2007). Net primary productivity of China’s terrestrial ecosystems from a process model driven by remote sensing. Journal of Environmental Management, 85(3): 563–573

[13] Gao J J, Christensen P, Li W (2017). Application of the WEAP model in strategic environmental assessment: Experiences from a case study in an arid/semi-arid area in China. Journal of Environmental Management, 198: 363–371

[14] Ghimire R, Ghimire B, Mesbah A O, Idowu O J, O’neill M K, Angadi S V, Shukla M K (2018). Current status, opportunities, and challenges of cover cropping for sustainable dryland farming in the Southern Great Plains. Journal of Crop Improvement, 32(4): 579–598

[15] Hao Y, Hu X, Chen H (2019). On the relationship between water use and economic growth in China: New evidence from simultaneous equation model analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production, 235: 953–965

[16] Hu Y, Nacun B (2018). An analysis of land-use change and grassland degradation from a policy perspective in Inner Mongolia, China, 1990–2015. Sustainability, 10(11): 4048

[17] Hu Y N, Huang J K, Hou L L (2019). Impacts of the grassland ecological compensation policy on household livestock production in China: An empirical study in Inner Mongolia. Ecological Economics, 161: 248–256

[18] Huang J P, Yu H P, Guan X D, Wang G Y, Guo R X (2016). Accelerated dryland expansion under climate change. Nature Climate Change, 6(2): 166–171

[19] Huang K, Guo H, Liu Y, Zhou F, Yu Y, Wang Z (2008). Water environmental planning and management at the watershed scale: A case study of Lake Qilu, China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering in China, 2(2): 157–162

[20] Jiang H, Wang J Z, Dong Y, Lu H Y (2015). Comprehensive assessment of wind resources and the low-carbon economy: An empirical study in the Alxa and Xilin Gol Leagues of inner Mongolia, China. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50: 1304–1319

[21] Jiang Y (2015). China’s water security: Current status, emerging challenges and future prospects. Environmental Science & Policy, 54: 106–125

[22] Kreyling J, Dengler J, Walter J, Velev N, Ugurlu E, Sopotlieva D, Ransijn J, Picon-Cochard C, Nijs I, Hernandez P, Guler B, von Gillhaussen P, De Boeck H J, Bloor J M G, Berwaers S, Beierkuhnlein C, Arfin Khan M A S, Apostolova I, Altan Y, Zeiter M, Wellstein C, Sternberg M, Stampfli A, Campetella G, Bartha S, Bahn M, Jentsch A (2017). Species richness effects on grassland recovery from drought depend on community productivity in a multisite experiment. Ecology Letters, 20(11): 1405–1413

[23] Li J, Liu Z, He C, Yue H, Gou S (2017). Water shortages raised a legitimate concern over the sustainable development of the drylands of northern China: Evidence from the water stress index. Science of the Total Environment, 590–591: 739–750

[24] Li K L, Huang G, Wang S (2019). Market-based stochastic optimization of water resources systems for improving drought resilience and economic efficiency in arid regions. Journal of Cleaner Production, 233: 522–537

[25] Li Q R, Zander P (2020). Resilience building of rural livelihoods in PES programmes: A case study in China’s Loess Hills. Ambio, 49(4): 962–985

[26] Li Z, Bagan H, Yamagata Y (2018). Analysis of spatiotemporal land cover changes in Inner Mongolia using self-organizing map neural network and grid cells method. Science of the Total Environment, 636: 1180–1191

[27] Liang W, Yang Y T, Fan D M, Guan H D, Zhang T, Long D, Zhou Y, Bai D (2015). Analysis of spatial and temporal patterns of net primary production and their climate controls in China from 1982 to 2010. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 204: 22–36

[28] Lin G, Jiang D, Fu J, Dong D, Sun W, Li X (2020). Spatial relationships of water resources with energy consumption at coal mining operations in China. Mine Water and the Environment, 39(2): 407–415

[29] Liu H, Liu A, Zhang B, Zhang T, Zhang X (2008). A fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method of maintenance quality based on improved radar chart. IEEE, 638–642

[30] Liu M, Xu X, Jiang Y, Huang Q, Huo Z, Liu L, Huang G (2020). Responses of crop growth and water productivity to climate change and agricultural water-saving in arid region. Science of the Total Environment, 703: 134621

[31] Liu Y, Du J, Wang Y, Cui X, Dong J, Hao Y, Xue K, Duan H, Xia A, Hu Y, Dong Z, Wu B, Zhao X, Fu B (2020a). Evenness is important in assessing progress towards sustainable development goals. National Science Review: NWAA238

[32] Liu Y, Du J, Xu X, Kardol P, Hu D (2020b). Microtopography-induced ecohydrological effects alter plant community structure. Geoderma, 362: 114119

[33] MEA (2005). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis Report. Washington, DC: Island Press

[34] Moreno-Jiménez E, Plaza C, Saiz H, Manzano R, Flagmeier M, Maestre F T (2019). Aridity and reduced soil micronutrient availability in global drylands. Nature Sustainability, 2(5): 371–377

[35] Mu S J, Zhou S X, Chen Y Z, Li J L, Ju W M, Odeh I O A (2013). Assessing the impact of restoration-induced land conversion and management alternatives on net primary productivity in Inner Mongolian grassland, China. Global and Planetary Change, 108: 29–41

[36] National Bureau of Statistics (2018). Inner Mongolia Statistical Yearbook 2000–2017 (in Chinese). Beijing: China Statistics Press

[37] OECD (2012). OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of Inaction. Paris: OECD Publishing

[38] People’s Government of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (2008). Regulations for water permit and water resource fees in Inner Mongolia (in Chinese). Inner Mongolia Government Gazette. 2008. Available online at www.fengzhen.gov.cn (accessed February 20, 2020)

[39] Prăvălie R (2016). Drylands extent and environmental issues: A global approach. Earth-Science Reviews, 161: 259–278

[40] Qiao G, Zhao L, Klein K K (2009). Water user associations in Inner Mongolia: Factors that influence farmers to join. Agricultural Water Management, 96(5): 822–830

[41] Qu J, Wang H, Wang K, Yu G, Ke B, Yu H, Ren H, Zheng X, Li J, Li W, Gao S, Gong H (2019). Municipal wastewater treatment in China: Development history and future perspectives. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13(6): 88

[42] Ren Y J, Lu Y H, Fu B J (2016). Quantifying the impacts of grassland restoration on biodiversity and ecosystem services in China: A meta-analysis. Ecological Engineering, 95: 542–550

[43] Rodell M, Famiglietti J S, Wiese D N, Reager J T, Beaudoing H K, Landerer F W, Lo M H (2018). Emerging trends in global freshwater availability. Nature, 557: 651–659

[44] Sachs J, Schmidt-Traub G, Kroll C, Lafortune G, Fuller G (2018). SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2018.New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)

[45] Shang C, Wu T, Huang G, Wu J (2019). Weak sustainability is not sustainable: Socioeconomic and environmental assessment of Inner Mongolia for the past three decades. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 141: 243–252

[46] Shi Q, Chen S, Shi C, Wang Z, Deng X (2014). The impact of industrial transformation on water use efficiency in northwest region of China. Sustainability, 7(1): 56-74

[47] Soula R, Chebil A, Mccann L, Majdoub R (2021). Water scarcity in the Mahdia region of Tunisia: Are improved water policies needed? Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 12: 100510

[48] Su Y Z, Li Y L, Cui H Y, Zhao W Z (2005). Influences of continuous grazing and livestock exclusion on soil properties in a degraded sandy grassland, Inner Mongolia, northern China. Catena, 59(3): 267–278

[49] van Dijk A I J M, Beck H E, Crosbie R S, de Jeu R A M, Liu Y Y, Podger G M, Timbal B, Viney N R (2013). The Millennium Drought in southeast Australia (2001–2009): Natural and human causes and implications for water resources, ecosystems, economy, and society. Water Resources Research, 49(2): 1040–1057

[50] Wada Y, Flörke M, Hanasaki N, Eisner S, Fischer G, Tramberend S, Satoh Y, Van Vliet M T H, Yillia P, Ringler C, Burek P, Wiberg D (2016). Modeling global water use for the 21st century: the Water Futures and Solutions (WFaS) initiative and its approaches. Geoscientific Model Development, 9(1): 175–222

[51] Wang C, Wang R, Hertwich E, Liu Y (2017). A technology-based analysis of the water-energy-emission nexus of China’s steel industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 124: 116–128

[52] Wang J, Brown D G, Chen J Q (2013). Drivers of the dynamics in net primary productivity across ecological zones on the Mongolian Plateau. Landscape Ecology, 28(4): 725–739

[53] Water Resources Department of Inner Mongolia (2018). Inner Mongolia Water Resources Bulletin (in Chinese). 2000–2017. Available online at slt.nmg.gov.cn (accessed February 20, 2020)

[54] Wei Y P, Chen D, White R E, Willett I R, Edis R, Langford J (2009). Farmers’ perception of environmental degradation and their adoption of improved management practices in Alxa, China. Land Degradation & Development, 20(3): 336–346

[55] Wilcox K R, Shi Z, Gherardi L A, Lemoine N P, Koerner S E, Hoover D L, Bork E, Byrne K M, Cahill J Jr, Collins S L, Evans S, Gilgen A K, Holub P, Jiang L, Knapp A K, Lecain D, Liang J, Garcia-Palacios P, Penuelas J, Pockman W T, Smith M D, Sun S, White S R, Yahdjian L, Zhu K, Luo Y Q (2017). Asymmetric responses of primary productivity to precipitation extremes: A synthesis of grassland precipitation manipulation experiments. Global Change Biology, 23(10): 4376–4385

[56] Xie G, Liu J, Xu J, Xiao Y, Zhen L, Zhang C, Wang Y, Qin K, Gan S, Jiang Y (2019). A spatio-temporal delineation of trans-boundary ecosystem service flows from Inner Mongolia. Environmental Research Letters, 14(6): 065002

[57] Xu Z C, Chau S N, Chen X Z, Zhang J, Li Y J, Dietz T, Wang J Y, Winkler J A, Fan F, Huang B R, Li S X, Wu S H, Herzberger A, Tang Y, Hong D Q, Li Y K, Liu J G (2020). Assessing progress towards sustainable development over space and time. Nature, 577(7788): 74–78

[58] Yang Q C, Wang L C, Ma H Y, Yu K, Martin J D (2016). Hydrochemical characterization and pollution sources identification of groundwater in Salawusu aquifer system of Ordos Basin, China. Environmental Pollution, 216: 340–349

[59] Yang X C, Xu B, Jin Y X, Qin Z H, Ma H L, Li J Y, Zhao F, Chen S, Zhu X H (2015). Remote sensing monitoring of grassland vegetation growth in the Beijing-Tianjin sandstorm source project area from 2000 to 2010. Ecological Indicators, 51: 244–251

[60] Yang X, Xu J, Donzier J, Noel C (2013). A comparison of the water management systems in France and China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 7(5): 721–734 doi:10.1007/s11783-013-0550-z

[61] Yi X S, Li G S, Yin Y Y (2012). The impacts of grassland vegetation degradation on soil hydrological and ecological effects in the source region of the Yellow River: A case study in Junmuchang region of Maqin country. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 13: 967–981

[62] Yin Y T, Hou Y L, Langford C, Bai H H, Hou X Y (2019). Herder stocking rate and household income under the Grassland Ecological Protection Award Policy in northern China. Land Use Policy, 82: 120–129

[63] Zhang G L, Biradar C M, Xiao X M, Dong J W, Zhou Y T, Qin Y W, Zhang Y, Liu F, Ding M J, Thomas R J (2018). Exacerbated grassland degradation and desertification in Central Asia during 2000–2014. Ecological Applications, 28(2): 442–456

[64] Zhang Z, Shi M, Chen K Z, Yang H, Wang S (2021). Water scarcity will constrain the formation of a world-class megalopolis in North China. NPJ Urban Sustainability, 1: 13

[65] Zhao X, Fan X, Liang J (2017). Kuznets type relationship between water use and economic growth in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 168: 1091–1100

[66] Zhou L, Wang H, Zhang Z, Zhang J, Chen H, Bi X, Dai X, Xia S, Alvarez-Cohen L, Rittmann B E (2021). Novel perspective for urban water resource management: 5R generation. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 15(1): 16

[67] Zhou N, Zhang J J, Khanna N, Fridley D, Jiang S, Liu X (2019). Intertwined impacts of water, energy development, and carbon emissions in China. Applied Energy, 238: 78–91

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the CAS Strategic Priority Research Programme (No. XDA20050103); the International Partnership Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. 121311KYSB20170004-04); and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42001267).

Electronic Supplementary Material

Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-021-1462-y and is accessible for authorized users.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2022 Higher Education Press