Zero E-waste: Regulatory impediments and blockchain imperatives

Abstract

• Copyrights on electronic products are impediments in promoting circular economy.

• Manufacturers antagonize refurbishment and remanufacturing to maximize profit.

• International harmonization of copyright laws will aid repair and remanufacture.

• Blockchain–digital immutable ledgers–can promote trust among stakeholders.

The concept of zero waste is an ideal situation that will require different solutions for different categories of waste. Electronic waste (E-waste), the fastest growing category of solid hazardous waste presents various unique challenges. Electronic product repair, reuse and remanufacture (3re) are crucial for effective source reduction of E-waste and the integration of the electronics industry into a circular or zero-waste economy framework. Increasingly, 3re implementation is restricted by regulatory difficulties, particularly the invocation of copyright laws. Here, we use the examples of electronic printer cartridges and restored compact discs (CDs) to identify the challenges and to explore solutions for managing the risks associated with E-waste through circular economy and the opportunities presented by innovative Blockchain solutions. A set of international consensuses on judicial definitions, such as 3re, refurbish fake/counterfeit product and copyright exhaustion, are proposed to accelerate source reduction in E-waste management toward the goal of zero waste.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Blockchain / E-waste / Regulatory Policy / Copyright Laws / Repair-Reuse-Remanufacture / Toxicity

References

[1] Awasthi A K, Li J, Koh L, Ogunseitan O A (2019). Circular economy and electronic waste. Nature Electronics, 2(3): 86–89

[2] Bertuol D A, Machado C M, Silva M L, Calgaro C O, Dotto G L, Tanabe E H (2016). Recovery of cobalt from spent lithium-ion batteries using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 51: 245–251

[3] Bitcoin (2020). innovative payment network and a new kind of money. Available online at the website ofAccessed November 10, 2020)

[4] Chen M, Ogunseitan O A, Duan H, Zeng X, Li J (2018). China E-waste management: Struggling for future success. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 139: 48–49

[5] Cobalt Blockchain (2020). Available online at the website of www.cobaltblockchain.net (Accessed November 10, 2020)

[6] de Vries A (2019). Renewable energy will not solve Bitcoin’s sustainability problem. Joule, 3(4): 893–898

[7] European Commission (2020). Directive of the european parliament and of the council- amending Directive 2011/65/EU on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[8] European Commission – The ROHS Directive (2020) Available online at the website of ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/rohs_eee/index_en.htm (accessed November 10, 2020)

[9] European Union (2012). Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) Text with EEA relevance. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[10] Forti V, Baldé C P, Kuehr R, Bel G (2020). The Global E-waste Monitor 2020: Quantities, flows and the circular economy potential. United Nations University (UNU)/United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) – co-hosted SCYCLE Programme, International Telecommunication Union (ITU) & International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Bonn/Geneva/Rotterdam. ISBN Digital: 978–92–808–9114–0

[11] Garrett N (2020). Blockchain for the mining industry: Ethical cobalt production. IBM. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[12] Grinvald L C, Tur-Sinai O (2019). Intellectual Property Law and the Right to Repair. Fordham Law Review, 88: 63

[13] Guo J, Luo X, Tan S, Ogunseitan O A, Xu Z (2020). Thermal Degradation and Pollutant Emission from Waste Printed Circuit Boards Mounted with Electronic Components. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 382: 121038

[14] Hearty G (2019). Rare Earths: Next Element in the Trade War? Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[15] Hibbert K, Ogunseitan O A (2014). Risks of Toxic Ash from Artisanal Mining of Discarded Cellphones. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 278: 1–7

[16] Huang Z, Zhu J, Qiu R, Ruan J, Qiu R (2019). A cleaner and energy-saving technology of vacuum step-by-step reduction for recovering cobalt and nickel from spent lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 229: 1148–1157

[17] Intellectual Property High Court (2006). Patent Infringement / Exhaustion / Reproduction, Canon Inc. v. Recycle Assist Co., Ltd. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[18] Kang D, Chen M, Ogunseitan O A (2013). Potential environmental and human health impacts of rechargeable lithium batteries in electronic waste. Environmental Science & Technology, 21;47(10):5495–5503

[19] Li J, Zeng X, Chen M, Ogunseitan O A, Stevels A (2015). “Control-Alt-Delete”: Rebooting solutions for the e-waste problem. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(12): 7095–7108

[20] Los Angeles Times (April 26, 2018).Electronics-recycling innovator is going to prison for trying to extend computers’ lives. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[21] Malloy T, Zaunbrecher V, Beryt E, Judson R, Tice R, Allard P, Blake A, Cote I, Godwin H, Heine L, Kerzic P, Kostal J, Marchant G, McPartland J, Moran K, Nel A, Ogunseitan O, Rossi M, Thayer T, Tickner J, Whittaker M, Zarker K (2017). Advancing alternatives analysis: The role of predictive toxicology in selecting safer chemical products and processes. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 13(5): 915–925

[22] Maroufi S, Assefi M, Nekouei R K, Sahajwalla V (2020). Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 23: e00139

[23] Matthew G (2019) Meet the E-waste recycler jailed for a year for infringing Microsoft’s Copyright, Vice. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[24] McGrenary S (2019). The E-waste problem and how the Blockchain can solve it. Irish Tech News, 16 January 2019. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[25] Nixon H, Saphores J D M, Ogunseitan O A, Shapiro A A (2009). Understanding preferences for recycling electronic waste in California: The influence of environmental attitudes and beliefs on willingness to pay. Environment and Behavior, 41(1): 101–124

[26] Ogunseitan O A (2013). The Basel Convention and E-waste: Translation of scientific uncertainty to protective policy. Lancet. Global Health, 1(6): e313–e314

[27] Ogunseitan O A, Schoenung J M, SaphoresJ D M, Shapiro A A (2009). The electronics revolution: From E-wonderland to E-wasteland. Science, 326(5953): 670–671

[28] One Hundred Eleventh Congress of the United States of America (2020) “Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act” Section 1502 (Conflict Minerals), C-1-A-ii, page 840. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[29] Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2020). Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[30] Quintero-Almanza D, Gamiño-Arroyo Z, Sánchez-Cadena L E, Gómez-Castro F I, Uribe-Ramírez A R, Aguilera-Alvarado A F, Ocampo Carmona L M (2019). Recovery of cobalt from spent lithium-ion mobile phone batteries using liquid–liquid extraction. Batteries, 5(44) 1–13

[31] Roberts P (2018a). Episode 95: Copyright Insanity sends E-waste Recycler to Prison and IoT Inspector finds Insecure Things. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[32] Roberts P (2018b). Episode 99: Are we criminalizing reuse? An Exclusive Interview with Eric Lundgren. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[33] Saphores J D M, Nixon H, Ogunseitan O A, Shapiro A (2007). California households’ willingness to pay for ‘green’ electronics. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 50(1): 113–133

[34] Saphores J D M, Nixon H, Ogunseitan O A, Shapiro A (2009). How much e-waste is there in US basements and attics? Results from a national survey. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(11): 3322–3331

[35] Saphores J D M, Nixon H, Ogunseitan O A, Shapiro A A (2006). Household willingness to recycle electronic waste: an application to California. Environment and Behavior, 38(2): 183–208

[36] Saphores J D M, Ogunseitan O A, Shapiro A A (2012). Willingness to engage in a pro-environmental behavior: An analysis of e-waste recycling based on a national survey of US households. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 60: 49–63

[37] Schoenung J M, Ogunseitan O A, Saphores J D M, Shapiro A A (2004). Adopting lead‐free electronics: policy differences and knowledge gaps. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 8(4): 59–85

[38] Scott M T (2007) No Refills: The Intellectual Property High Court Decision in Canon v. Recycle Assist Will Negatively Impact the Printer Ink Cartridge Recycling Industry in Japan. Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal Association, 16 (3):775–803

[39] Singh N, Duan H, Ogunseitan O A, Li J, Tang Y (2019). Toxicity trends in E-Waste: A comparative analysis of metals in discarded mobile phones. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 380: 120898

[40] Takahashi V C I, Botelho Junior A B, Espinosa D C R, Tenório J A S (2020). Enhancing cobalt recovery from Li-ion batteries using grinding treatment prior to the leaching and solvent extraction process. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 8(103801): 1–7

[41] Teicher J (2020). Can blockchain pave the way for ethical cobalt? IBM. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[42] The Supreme People’s Procuratorate of China (2001). Interpretation of the Supreme People's Court and the Supreme People's Procuratorate on Several Issues Concerning the Specific Application of Law in Handling Criminal Cases of Manufacturing and Selling Fake and Inferior Commodities. Available online at the website of or

[43] Thomson Reuters I PAnalytics (2013). Patent landscape report on E-waste recycling technologies. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[44] Umicore (2020). Sustainable procurement framework for cobalt. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[45] United Kingdom, Government Office for Science (2020). Distributed Ledger Technology: beyond block chain. Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[46] United Nations Environment Program (2020). Basel Convention: Controlling transboundary movement of hazardous waste and their disposal. Available online at the website ofAccessed November 10, 2020)

[47] United States Commodity Futures Trading Commission (2020). Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Available online at the website ofAccessed November 10, 2020)

[48] USLEGAL (2006). Remanufacturing Law and Legal (Definition). Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[49] USLEGAL (2020). Repair Law and Legal (Definition). Available online at the website of Accessed November 10, 2020)

[50] Williams E (2011). Environmental effects of information and communications technologies. Nature, 479(7373): 354–358

[51] Zhang A, Zhong R Y, Farooque M, Kang K, Venkatesh V G (2020). Blockchain-based life cycle assessment: An implementation framework and system architecture. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 152: 104512

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press