Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of abused drugs and their metabolites in a typical urban river in north China

Abstract

We developed a method for determining 11 abused drugs in water and sediment.

METH and EPH were the dominant drugs in water and sediment in Beiyunhe River.

Abuse drugs in Beiyunhe River were mainly from hospitals and sewage effluents.

Abused drugs in the water would not impair the aquatic ecosystem biologically.

This study investigated the presence of 11 abused drugs and their metabolites, including amphetamine, methamphetamine (METH), ketamine, ephedrine (EPH), cocaine, benzoylecgonine, methadone, morphine, heroin, codeine, and methcathinone in the surface water and sediment samples of Beiyunhe River, a typical urban river flowing through Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei provinces in North China. An analytical method of determining these abused drugs and their metabolites in water and sediment was developed and validated prior to sample collection in the study area. Results showed that METH and EPH were predominant in water and sediment samples. The total drug concentrations ranged from 26.6 to 183.0 ng/L in water and from 2.6 to 32.4 ng/g dry weight in sediment, and the drugs mainly originated from hospitals and sewage treatment plants. The average field-based sediment water distribution coefficients of abused drugs were calculated between 149.3 and 1214.0 L/kg and corrected by organic carbon. Quotient method was used to assess the risks. The findings revealed that these drugs and their metabolites at determined concentrations in water samples will not impair the aquatic ecosystem biologically, but their potential harmful effect on the function of the ecosystem and human health should not be overlooked.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Drugs of abuse / Occurrence / Distribution / Urban river / Environmental risk

References

[1] Ahrens L, Taniyasu S, Yeung L W Y, Yamashita N, Lam P K S, Ebinghaus R (2010). Distribution of polyfluoroalkyl compounds in water, suspended particulate matter and sediment from Tokyo Bay, Japan. Chemosphere, 79(3): 266–272

[2] Álvarez-Ruiz R, Andrés-Costa M J, Andreu V, Picó Y (2015). Simultaneous determination of traditional and emerging illicit drugs in sediments, sludges and particulate matter. Journal of Chromatography. A, 1405: 103–115

[3] Baker D R, Kasprzyk-Hordern B (2011). Multi-residue analysis of drugs of abuse in wastewater and surface water by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-positive electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography. A, 1218(12): 1620–1631

[4] Baker D R, Kasprzyk-Hordern B (2013). Spatial and temporal occurrence of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in the aqueous environment and during wastewater treatment: new developments. Science of the Total Environment, 454– 455: 442–456

[5] Bartelt-Hunt S L, Snow D D, Damon T, Shockley J, Hoagland K (2009). The occurrence of illicit and therapeutic pharmaceuticals in wastewater effluent and surface waters in Nebraska. Environmental Pollution, 157(3): 786–791

[6] Berset J D, Brenneisen R, Mathieu C (2010). Analysis of llicit and illicit drugs in waste, surface and lake water samples using large volume direct injection high performance liquid chromatography—Electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Chemosphere, 81(7): 859–866

[7] Boleda M A, Galceran M A, Ventura F (2009). Monitoring of opiates, cannabinoids and their metabolites in wastewater, surface water and finished water in Catalonia, Spain. Water Research, 43(4): 1126–1136

[8] Boles T H, Wells M J M (2010). Analysis of amphetamine and methamphetamine as emerging pollutants in wastewater and wastewater-impacted streams. Journal of Chromatography. A, 1217(16): 2561–2568

[9] Chen Y, He S L, Zhou M M, Pan T T, Xu Y J, Gao Y X, Wang H K (2018). Feasibility assessment of up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket treatment of sulfamethoxazole pharmaceutical wastewater. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 12 (5): 13

[10] Cheng D, Liu X, Wang L, Gong W, Liu G, Fu W, Cheng M (2014). Seasonal variation and sediment-water exchange of antibiotics in a shallower large lake in North China. Science of the Total Environment, 476– 477: 266–275

[11] Chiaia A C, Banta-Green C, Field J (2008). Eliminating solid phase extraction with large-volume injection LC/MS/MS: analysis of illicit and legal drugs and human urine indicators in U.S. wastewaters. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(23): 8841–8848

[12] Dai G, Wang B, Huang J, Dong R, Deng S, Yu G (2015). Occurrence and source apportionment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the Beiyun River of Beijing, China. Chemosphere, 119: 1033–1039

[13] Daughton C G (2001). Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Environment: Scientific and Regulatory Issues. Washington: American Chemical Society,348–364

[14] Daughton C G, Ternes T A (1999). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change? Environmental Health Perspectives, 107(Suppl 6): 907–938

[15] Du P, Li K, Li J, Xu Z, Fu X, Yang J, Zhang H, Li X (2015). Methamphetamine and ketamine use in major Chinese cities, a nationwide reconnaissance through sewage-based epidemiology. Water Research, 84: 76–84

[16] EU (2003). Technical Guidance Document in Support of Council Directive 93/67/EEC on Risk Assessment for New Notified Substances and Commission Regulation (EC) 1488/94 on Risk Assessment for Existing Substances (Part II: Environmental Risk Assessment). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

[17] EU (2011). Common Implementation Strategy for the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) Guidance Document No. 27. Technical Guidance for Deriving Environmental Quality Standards (Technical Report-2011–055). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

[18] Gago-Ferrero P, Borova V, Dasenaki M E, T Nhomaidis S (2015). Simultaneous determination of 148 pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in sewage sludge based on ultrasound-assisted extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 407(15): 4287–4297

[19] Guo C, Zhang T, Hou S, Lv J, Zhang Y, Wu F, Hua Z, Meng W, Zhang H, Xu J (2017). Investigation and application of a new passive sampling technique for in-situ monitoring of illicit drugs in waste waters and rivers. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(16): 9101–9108

[20] Hu M C, Liu Y, Yao Z H, Ma L P, Wang X Q (2018). Catalytic reduction for water treatment. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 12 (1): 3

[21] Huang H, Wu J, Ye J, Ye T J, Deng J, Liang Y M, Liu W (2018). Occurrence, removal, and environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants in south China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 12 (6): 7

[22] Irvine R J, Kostakis C, Felgate P D, Jaehne E J, Chen C, White J M (2011). Population drug use in Australia: A wastewater analysis. Forensic Science International, 210(1–3): 69–73

[23] Jiang J J, Lee C L, Fang M D, Tu B W, Liang Y J (2015). Impacts of emerging contaminants on surrounding aquatic environment from a youth festival. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(2): 792–799

[24] Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Dinsdale R M, Guwy A J (2009). The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters. Water Research, 43(2): 363–380

[25] Kim S C, Carlson K (2007). Temporal and spatial trends in the occurrence of human and veterinary antibiotics in aqueous and river sediment matrices. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(1): 50–57

[26] Kwadijk C J A F, Korytár P, Koelmans A A (2010). Distribution of perfluorinated compounds in aquatic systems in the Netherlands. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(10): 3746–3751

[27] Li K, Du P, Xu Z, Gao T, Li X (2016). Occurrence of illicit drugs in surface waters in China. Environmental Pollution, 213: 395–402

[28] Lilius H, Isomaa B, Holmstr M T (1994). A comparison of the toxicity of 50 reference chemicals to freshly isolated rainbow trout hepatocytes and Daphnia magna. Aquatic Toxicology, 30(1): 47–60

[29] Lin A Y C, Wang X H, Lin C F (2010). Impact of wastewaters and hospital effluents on the occurrence of controlled substances in surface waters. Chemosphere, 81(5): 562–570

[30] López-Serna R, Postigo C, Blanco J, Pérez S, Ginebreda A, de Alda M L, Petrović M, Munné A, Barceló D (2012). Assessing the effects of tertiary treated wastewater reuse on the presence emerging contaminants in a Mediterranean river (Llobregat, NE Spain). Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 19(4): 1000–1012

[31] Lv J, Xu J, Guo C, Zhang Y, Bai Y, Meng W (2014). Spatial and temporal distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface water from Liaohe River Basin, northeast China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 21(11): 7088–7096

[32] Lv J, Zhang Y, Zhao X, Zhou C, Guo C, Luo Y, Meng W, Zou G, Xu J (2015). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediments of Liaohe River: levels, spatial and temporal distribution, possible sources, and inventory. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 22(6): 4256–4264

[33] Martínez Bueno M J, Uclés S, Hernando M D, Fernández-Alba A R (2011). Development of a solvent-free method for the simultaneous identification/quantification of drugs of abuse and their metabolites in environmental water by LC-MS/MS. Talanta, 85(1): 157–166

[34] McCall A K, Bade R, Kinyua J, Lai F Y, Thai P K, Covaci A, Bijlsma L, van Nuijs A L N, Ort C (2016). Critical review on the stability of illicit drugs in sewers and wastewater samples. Water Research, 88: 933–947

[35] Mcleod G A (2008). Pharmacology for anaesthesia and intensive care. Cambridge University Press, 12 (3): 186–187

[36] Mendoza A, Rodríguez-Gil J L, González-Alonso S, Mastroianni N, López de Alda M, Barceló D, Valcárcel Y (2014). Drugs of abuse and benzodiazepines in the Madrid Region (Central Spain): Seasonal variation in river waters, occurrence in tap water and potential environmental and human risk. Environment International, 70: 76–87

[37] Metcalfe C, Tindale K, Li H, Rodayan A, Yargeau V (2010). Illicit drugs in Canadian municipal wastewater and estimates of community drug use. Environmental Pollution, 158(10): 3179–3185

[38] Nefau T, Karolak S, Castillo L, Boireau V, Levi Y (2013). Presence of illicit drugs and metabolites in influents and effluents of 25 sewage water treatment plants and map of drug consumption in France. Science of the Total Environment, 461– 462: 712–722

[39] OECD (2002). Manual for Investigation of HPV Chemicals. Chapter 4: Initial Assessment of Data. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

[40] Office of China National Narcotic Control Commission (2017). Annual Report on Drug Control in China. Beijing, China: Office of China National Narcotic Control Commission (in Chinese)

[41] Pal R, Megharaj M, Kirkbride K P, Naidu R (2013). Illicit drugs and the environment:A review. Science of the Total Environment, 463-464: 1079–1092

[42] Pereira C D S, Maranho L A, Cortez F S, Pusceddu F H, Santos A R, Ribeiro D A, Cesar A, Guimarães L L (2016). Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in a Brazilian coastal zone. Science of the Total Environment, 548-549: 148–154

[43] Plósz B G, Reid M J, Borup M, Langford K H, Thomas K V (2013). Biotransformation kinetics and sorption of cocaine and its metabolites and the factors influencing their estimation in wastewater. Water Research, 47(7): 2129–2140

[44] Postigo C, López de Alda M J, Barceló D (2010). Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the Ebro River basin: Occurrence in sewage and surface water, sewage treatment plants removal efficiency, and collective drug usage estimation. Environment International, 36(1): 75–84

[45] Rosi-Marshall E J, Snow D, Bartelt-Hunt S L, Paspalof A, Tank J L (2015). A review of ecological effects and environmental fate of illicit drugs in aquatic ecosystems. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 282: 18–25

[46] Sanderson H, Boudreau T M, Mabury S A (2004). Effects of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid on the zooplanktonic community. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 58(1): 68–76

[47] Senta I, Krizman I, Ahel M, Terzic S (2015). Multiresidual analysis of emerging amphetamine-like psychoactive substances in wastewater and river water. Journal of Chromatography. A, 1425: 204–212

[48] United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2016). World Drug Report. New York: United Nations

[49] US EPA (1997a). Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms (EPA Publication No. 175-B-97–001).Washington D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

[50] US EPA (1997b). Ecological Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund: Process for Designing and Conducting Ecological Risk Assessments — Interim Final (EPA Publication No. 540/R-97/006). Washington D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

[51] US EPA (1998). Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment (EPA Publication No. 630/R-95/002F). Washington D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

[52] Van der Aa M, Bijlsma L, Emke E, Dijkman E, van Nuijs A L N, van de Ven B, Hernández F, Versteegh A, de Voogt P (2013). Risk assessment for drugs of abuse in the Dutch watercycle. Water Research, 47(5): 1848–1857

[53] Wang D G, Zheng Q D, Wang X P, Du J, Tian C G, Wang Z, Ge L K (2016). Illicit drugs and their metabolites in 36 rivers that drain into the Bohai Sea and north Yellow Sea, north China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 23(16): 16495–16503

[54] Xu B J, Xue G, Yang X (2018). Isolation and application of an ibuprofen-degrading bacterium to a biological aerated filter for the treatment of micro-polluted water. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 12 (5): 15

[55] Xu J, Zhang Y, Zhou C, Guo C, Wang D, Du P, Luo Y, Wan J, Meng W (2014). Distribution, sources and composition of antibiotics in sediment, overlying water and pore water from Taihu Lake, China. Science of the Total Environment, 497– 498: 267–273

[56] Xu Y, Guo C, Luo Y, Lv J, Zhang Y, Lin H, Wang L, Xu J (2016). Occurrence and distribution of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance genes in the urban rivers in Beijing, China. Environmental Pollution, 213: 833–840

[57] Yao B, Lian L, Pang W, Yin D, Chan S A, Song W (2016). Determination of illicit drugs in aqueous environmental samples by online solid-phase extraction coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chemosphere, 160: 208–215

[58] Zhang Y, Zhang T, Guo C, Lv J, Hua Z, Hou S, Zhang Y, Meng W, Xu J (2017). Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the urban rivers of Beijing, China: Occurrence, distribution, and potential environmental risk. Science of the Total Environment, 579: 305–313

[59] Zhao Y Y, Kong F X, Wang Z, Yang H W, Wang X M, Xie Y, Waite T D (2017). Role of membrane and compound properties in affecting the rejection of pharmaceuticals by different RO/NF membranes. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 11 (6): 20

[60] Zuccato E, Castiglioni S, Bagnati R, Chiabrando C, Grassi P, Fanelli R (2008). Illicit drugs, a novel group of environmental contaminants. Water Research, 42(4–5): 961–968

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature