The World Health Organization (WHO) “Global Tuberculosis Report 2024” underscores the ongoing challenges and progress in the global fight against tuberculosis (TB). Despite a slowdown in the annual increase in TB cases and a decline in TB-related deaths, the disease remains a significant public health threat with 10.8 million new cases reported in 2023. The report reveals a persistently high burden of TB, especially in low- and middle-income countries, and highlights the escalating issue of drug-resistant TB. The report also emphasizes the critical need for increased funding, improved diagnostics, and more effective TB treatment regimens. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on TB control has been substantial, disrupting healthcare services and exacerbating existing challenges. This paper provides an in-depth interpretation of the report, analyzes global TB trends, updates the status of drug-resistant TB, discusses the intersection between TB and HIV, and summarizes the implications of the pandemic on TB control efforts. The report concludes with a call for intensified global action, including increased investment in research and innovation, to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals related to TB control. The stakes are high, but with concerted efforts, the goal of ending the TB epidemic is within reach.

Background: Ticks are important vectors for many pathogens affecting humans and animals. This study was aimed at investigating the species composition, genetic diversity, and potential transmission risks of tick-borne pathogens in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China.

Methods: A total of 980 ticks were collected from 14 prefecture-level cities in Guangxi between March and July 2021. Ticks were identified morphologically and genetically, and the population diversity of Rhipicephalus microplus was analyzed according to 16S rDNA, COXI, and ITS-2 gene sequences. Population genetics was assessed through F_ST, AMOVA, and phylogenetic analyses. PCR was used to detect five common tick-borne pathogens: Rickettsia, Babesia, Theileria, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum.

Results: Rhipicephalus microplus was the dominant tick species, and was observed in 92.04% of all samples. Genetic diversity analysis revealed higher haplotype diversity for the 16S rDNA and COXI genes than the ITS-2 gene; these findings suggested a faster evolutionary rate for the first two markers. Population genetic differentiation was observed betweenRhipicephalus microplus populations in Guilin, Hechi, and other regions, probably because of geographic isolation. Pathogen analysis revealed a 13.27% overall infection rate, and identified three Rickettsia, two Babesia, and three Theileria species. Co-infection with Theileria and Rickettsia was also detected. Notably, neither Borrelia nor Anaplasma was found in the tick samples. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the distinctiveness of the Rickettsia and Piroplasma groups.

Conclusions: This study provides a comprehensive assessment of tick species diversity and tick-borne pathogens in Guangxi, highlighting the potential health risks posed by Rhipicephalus microplus. The findings emphasize the need for expanded tick surveillance, enhanced pathogen detection methods, and integrated management strategies to mitigate the spread of tick-borne diseases. Future research should include the collection of free questing ticks and metagenomic approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding of pathogen risk in the region.

Objective: Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) are critical pathogens identified by the WHO for their significant drug resistance. Targeting of bacterial gyrase, specifically the gyrB subunit, is a promising approach because of this enzyme’s essential role in bacterial DNA replication and its absence in higher eukaryotes. However, understanding of the mode of action of gyrB inhibitors remains largely incomplete. This study explored the resistance mechanisms of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) to novobiocin, a gyrB inhibitor.

Methods: Through adaptive laboratory evolution, key resistance mutations (in gyrB, potB, and fpgS) in S. aureus were identified after repeated exposure to novobiocin. Further metabolomic analysis revealed the function of the major mutation (in gyrB) in relation to the potential mechanism through which S. aureus responds to novobiocin.

Results: Through whole genome sequencing, three mutations of S. aureus in gyrB, potB, and fpgS were identified. The gyrB mutation was the primary driver of resistance, and was associated with changes in growth, survival under surface and oxidative stress, cell wall permeability, and coagulation functions. Metabolomic analysis demonstrated compensatory metabolic adjustments affecting protein synthesis and DNA replication in the resistant strain.

Conclusions: These findings provide insights into the complex resistance mechanisms of S. aureus to novobiocin and highlight the metabolic costs associated with gyrB mutations, thereby potentially informing future antibacterial strategy development.

Objective: This study was aimed at exploring pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) epidemiological characteristics and trends in China from 2016 to 2022, to provide evidence for optimizing strategies and measures for tuberculosis prevention and control.

Methods: Data on PTB in China reported from 2016 to 2022 were obtained from the Chinese Disease Prevention and Control Information System. Descriptive epidemiological methods were used to analyze the population distribution, and temporal and spatial distribution (also known as the three-dimensional distribution in epidemiology). The chi-square test was used for comparisons between groups. Joinpoint regression was used to analyze the temporal trends in PTB notification rates, and ArcGIS 10.3 software was used to visualize the results.

Results: In total, 5,141,468 cases of PTB were reported in China from 2016 to 2022, among which 39.89% were bacteriologically positive. Joinpoint regression analysis indicated that the PTB notification rate showed an overall downward trend from 2016 to 2022, with 2018 as the inflection point. The annual percentage change (APC) was −0.72% (95% CI: −4.78% to 2.96%, P<0.001) from 2016 to 2018, and −9.26% (95% CI: −11.76% to −8.08%,P<0.001) from 2018 to 2022; the overall average annual percentage change (AAPC) was −6.50% (95% CI: −7.56% to −5.51%,P<0.001). The population distribution indicated that the male to female ratio was 2.19:1.00. Individuals older than 65 years accounted for 25.93%. Occupation distribution analysis indicated that farmers accounted for more than 60%. The PTB notification rate showed the following spatial distribution: western region > central region > eastern region. Guangdong province had the highest number of reported PTB cases.

Conclusion: From 2016 to 2022, the PTB notification rate showed an overall downward trend in China. Men, older people, and farmers were the majority groups. The western region and Guangdong province were hotspots that must be addressed. In the future, the Tuberculosis prevention and control strategies should be optimized according to epidemiological characteristics.

Infectious diseases pose a major challenge to public health worldwide. In recent years, vector-borne and zoonotic diseases have emerged as major public health threats. Effective prevention, control, and essential monitoring strategies are required to combat the rising global incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases. The frequency of infectious disease outbreaks has increased in the past several decades, and this trend has been predicted to be likely to continue. To effectively identify public health threats, and monitor and alert against infectious diseases, we obtained surveillance data from Shusi Tech’s Global Epidemic Information Monitoring System and conducted a comprehensive analysis of outbreak timing and location from the beginning of the year to December of 2024.

Vaccinia virus (VACV) confers cross-protective immunity against variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, and has therefore been extensively exploited as a preventive vaccine. Despite the global eradication of smallpox in the 1980s, research efforts involving VACV have continued due to the potential threat of variola virus being used as a bioweapon, which poses grave risks to human health. VACV has emerged as a promising viral vector for vaccine development beyond the traditional application of VACV in smallpox prophylaxis, which has been attributed to its capacity for efficient foreign gene expression. Leveraging strategies, such as serial passage in alternative hosts and genetic engineering techniques, have generated highly attenuated VACV vaccine vectors by deleting specific viral genes, most notably those encoding immunomodulatory proteins. The recent emergence of pathogenic orthopoxvirus outbreaks, exemplified by monkeypox, has reignited scientific interest in VACV research. This review delineates the commonly targeted viral genes for attenuation during VACV vector modification and provides an overview of the progress in VACV-vectored vaccine development.

Objective: Lassa virus (LASV) glycoprotein complex (GPC) contains retained stable-signal peptide (SSP), glycoprotein 1 (GP1), and glycoprotein 2 (GP2). Through serial passaging of LASV with inhibitors, adaptive mutants were obtained, most of which had mutations in the transmembrane (TM) domain of GP2. Characterizing the fusion inhibitor target within the TM domain of GP2 provided insights for the development of drugs and vaccines.

Methods: We conducted membrane fusion, IIH6 inhibition, thermostability, and viral growth kinetics assays to characterize the effects of the F446L mutation on GPC-mediated membrane fusion, receptor binding, thermostability, growth kinetics, and fitness.

Results: F446L conferred cross-resistance to structurally distinct inhibitors. Additionally, F446L increased the fusion activity of LASV and Mopeia virus (MOPV) GPC, thus elevating the pH threshold for LASV fusion and promoting MOPV fusion at neutral pH. However, F446L exerted little effect on the pseudotype viral growth profile or thermostability. Introduction of other residues at the conserved F446 locus indicated that this site showed low compatibility with similar retained aromatic cyclic tyrosine residues and did not tolerate charged residues.

Conclusions: We characterized the effects of the F446L mutation on LASV, thus providing useful information for the development of vaccines and drugs.

Objective: Listeriosis is among the most severe food-borne diseases affecting both animals and humans, and it presents a serious threat to public health, animal welfare, and the food industry. Food products contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), the causative agent of listeriosis, are recognized as the primary source of infection. Since the late 1960s, the live whole-cell vaccine AUF (LWCV AUF) has been successfully used for the prevention of listeriosis in farm animals in Russian regions affected by the disease. This commercial vaccine is based on manufactured batches of the two ovine parental Lm strains isolated in various regions of the former USSR, Siberia, and Azerbaijan, from distinct animals in different years. This study was aimed at investigating whether these strains might belong to the same phylogenetic lineage and possess identical sequence types (STs).

Methods: One Lm vaccine strain was attenuated by multiple ultraviolet irradiation (UFR), whereas the other was obtained through routine techniques involving multiple passages on bacteriological media. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis was performed with amplification and sequencing of internal fragments of seven housekeeping genes (abcZ, bglA, cat, dapE, dat, ldh, and lhkA). For morphological comparison, both Lm strains were grown on Chromocult Listeria Agar Ottaviani and Agosti bacterial media.

Results: Both attenuated Lm strains belonged to a single phylogenetic lineage (lineage II), and were assigned to different STs (ST124 and ST1538), and clonal complexes (CCs), (CC124 and CC7). In addition, these strains demonstrated different morphological characteristics when grown on bacterial media standard for Lm.

Conclusion: The LWCV AUF is formulated on two manufactured attenuated Lm strains belonging to two genetically different lineages.

Objective: Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), an exotoxin produced by single- or multi-drug-resistantStaphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), can induce food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome. Because no treatment is available for SEB-poisoned patients, development of a safe and effective SEB antidote is urgently needed.

Methods: First, SEB was prepared, and native SEB (nSEB) was used to construct lethal mouse and rhesus monkey models. Second, F(ab′)₂ fragments of IgG antibodies were cleaved with pepsin from horses inoculated with Freund’s adjuvant-purified nSEB. Finally, protective efficacy was evaluated in mouse and rhesus monkey models of lethal SEB intoxication.

Results: In mouse and monkey model studies, the purity of the prepared nSEB reached 90%, and that of the F(ab′)₂ fragments reached 83.09%. In mice and rhesus monkeys, the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) was 21.87 μg/kg and 23.77 μg/kg, respectively. Additionally, administration of 6.25 mg/kg and 7.125 mg/kg of F(ab′)₂ fragments, respectively, effectively prevented SEB-induced lethality. Finally, single-cell sequencing of peripheral blood immune cells was used to detect the effects of the therapeutic antibody on peripheral blood immune cells. The underlying mechanism was found to involve inhibition of neutrophil activation, proliferation, and differentiation.

Conclusion: Purified F(ab′)₂ fragments were an effective antidote to lethal SEB doses in mice and rhesus monkeys, and therefore might be a favorable candidate for treating patients with severe SEB intoxication.

Objective: Inner Mongolia, with its vast grasslands providing ideal habitats for ticks, has recently emerged as a hotspot of novel tick-borne virus (TBV) prevalence. However, the diversity of TBVs and their potential spillover risks remain to be elucidated.

Methods: In 2021, we collected 500 Haemaphysalis longicornis, Ixodes persulcatus, and Dermacentor silvarum ticks from Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia, and conducted virome analysis and viral surveillance to evaluate TBV exposure risk in Hulunbuir.

Results: A total of 26 viral species belonging to nine families were identified, including four novel viruses (Yiliekede tick virus 1 [YLTV1, Rhabdoviridae], Meitian tick virus [MtTV,Phenuiviridae], Wunuer pestivirus, and Wunuer tick phlebovirus) and 11 new strains of human-pathogenic viruses (including Songling virus [SGLV], Beiji nairovirus [BJNV], and Nuomin virus [NOMV]), from three dominant tick species. Virome profiling revealed striking species-specific patterns:I. persulcatus exhibited the highest viral richness and abundance, dominated by Chuviridae (NOMV) and Phenuiviridae; D. silvarum uniquely carried Phenuiviridae (MtTV); and H. longicornis showed Nairoviridae predominance (SGLV, BJNV). Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that MtTV clustered with human-pathogenic Tacheng tick virus 2, and NOMV-YL strains showed high similarity to clinical NOMV isolates from febrile patients. Regional surveillance demonstrated MtTV’s pan-regional circulation inD. silvarum across nine locations (MIR=4–8%), contrasting with localized Yiliekede foci for SGLV (MIR=0.6%), BJNV (0.4%), and NOMV (1.0%).

Conclusions: This study not only mapped the landscape of TBVs in a key pastoral region, but also highlighted the potential spillover risk of TBVs, including MtTV, YLTV1, SGLV, BJNV, and NOMV. Our findings underscore the urgent need for One Health strategies for monitoring emerging TBVs at the tick-human-livestock interface in northern China.

Objective: The zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter is a major foodborne bacterial species worldwide. The distribution and drivers of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in global Campylobacter strains remain largely unknown. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of longitudinal trends and driving factors of AMR in Campylobacter is necessary at a global level.

Methods: We downloaded from public repositories 66,771 Campylobacter genomes (24,115 from C. coli and 42,656 from C. jejuni) in 53 countries/regions during 1954–2023, and performed a comprehensive analysis.

Results: We categorized the Campylobacter isolates into 2,771 sequence types (STs), 45 of which were shared among humans, chickens, pigs, cattle, and the environment. We uncovered the spatial and temporal characteristics of resistance across antimicrobial classes on a global scale, and observed increased trends in the aminoglycoside, tetracycline, and fluoroquinolone resistance of C. jejuni during the past 23 years. Some of the antibiotic, climate, and socioeconomic indicators collected from the World Bank might potentially have driven the rise of AMR in various countries/regions to varying degrees.

Conclusions: In summary, we present a global genetic atlas of Campylobacter, which provides valuable insights for understanding the transmission dynamics of AMR in this species.

Northeastern China has a high incidence of tick-borne diseases. Emerging and re-emerging tick-borne viral diseases pose a considerable threat to public health. To date, ten tick-borne viruses have been identified to cause disease in humans or animals in northeastern China. The complex diversity of tick-borne viral diseases in the region poses substantial diagnosis and treatment challenges, but also offers valuable opportunities to study the genetic evolution and transmission dynamics of tick-borne viruses.

Objective: This study was aimed at analyzing the distribution and progression of prion seeds across the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral tissues, by evaluating the real time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) reactivity of the brain, and other organs and tissues, from hamsters in early, middle-early, middle-late and terminal stages of intracerebral infection with scrapie agent 263K.

Methods: Brain, skin and other organ specimens were collected at approximately 20, 40, 60 and 80 (terminal stage) days post-inoculation, and homogenates were prepared. Protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) and RT-QuIC were used for sample detection. The 50% seeding dose (SD₅₀) values for prion seeding were calculated with the Spearman-Karber method, and RT-QuIC reactivity lag times were compared among tissues and time points.

Results: RT-QuIC indicated positive reactions in brain tissue samples across all time points (20–80 dpi), and increasing seeding capacity and decreasing lag times were observed during the incubation period. In peripheral tissues, including the heart, liver, spleen, lung, colon and skin, RT-QuIC positivity showed delayed onset, appearing at later stages (≥40 dpi) than observed in the brain. The brain exhibited significantly higher SD₅₀ values than peripheral tissues, thus reflecting greater seeding capacity. Prion seeds were widely distributed in the CNS and peripheral tissues at the terminal stage, and the highest RT-QuIC positivity and SD₅₀ values were observed in the brain.

Conclusions: Prions were widely distributed in the CNS and peripheral tissues of scrapie-infected hamsters, and CNS tissues exhibited a particularly high level of reactivity and seeding capacity in the RT-QuIC assay.

Background: Hematologic disorders occur frequently in patients with Ebola virus disease (EVD) and are characterized by one or several abnormalities in blood cells, including hemostasis, which is poorly documented. This study described the hematologic abnormalities of Ebola patients and the impact on the outcomes of patients who were admitted with EVD.

Methods: This was a retrospective observational study of patients recruited from 1 February 2019 to 25 June 2020 from Ebola Treatment Centers in Butembo and Katwa. Clinical and hemogram parameters at the time of admission and outcomes were collected. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were performed with a significance level of 0.05. The analyses were carried out using Rstudio software.

Results: Among 299 patients hospitalized during the study period, only 129 were included in the analysis. The mean age was 29.9 ± 18.6 years with a female-to-male ratio of 1.2. Only 13 patients (10 %) had been vaccinated against the Ebolazaire virus. The hematologic abnormalities included anemia (55.8%), hyperleukocytosis (36.4%), leukopenia (3.1%), thrombopenia (32.6%), and thrombocytosis (30.2%). Only anemia was statistically significantly correlated with increased viral load. Anemia (OR, 4.07; 95% CI, 1.59–11.3) was shown to be an independent risk factor for mortality in patients with EVD based on multivariate analysis.

Conclusions: EVD is responsible for major hematologic abnormalities that contribute to increased patient mortality.

Objective: The objectives of this study were to characterise the epidemiology of human and animal brucellosis in the eastern Algerian province of Constantine, and to identify the interactions between humans and animals, to establish strategies from a unique health perspective considering the context of endemicity and eradication challenges.

Methods: Data collected from official institutions regarding brucellosis in humans and animals in Constantine and seven other provinces from 2015 to 2023 (until August 2022 for animals) were analysed to estimate temporal trends, alert thresholds, and correlations between humans and animals.

Results: A total of 163 brucellosis cases in humans were recorded in Constantine between 2015 and 2023, and the annual average was 1.47/100,000. The epidemic threshold was exceeded in 2021 and 2022. Males and residents 20–44 years of age were the most affected groups. In cattle, the prevalence was 1.32%, and the screening rate was below 7.5%. The only significant correlation was observed between humans and goats (r = −0.747, p = 0.03). The southern Constantine region was the most affected.

Conclusion: Brucellosis is an underestimated public health threat in Algeria. Gaps in its management include inadequate screening of goats, insufficient vaccination coverage and underreporting. The implementation of more comprehensive surveillance programmes is imperative.

Objectives: This study was aimed at evaluating the relationship between microscopic agglutination test (MAT) seropositivity and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) reactivity in cattle. An additional objective was assessment of the diagnostic value of both tests in detecting seropositivity and infection caused by pathogenicLeptospira.

Methods: Blood and urine samples were collected from 61 bovines in the Los Lagos region of Chile. The MAT detected a panel of eight Leptospira serogroups, whereas real-time PCR was conducted with a TaqMan probe targeting the Leptospira lipL32 gene.

Results: The seropositivity rate for pathogenic Leptospira was 39.3% (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 27.04–51.57) according to the MAT, andTarassovi and Sejroe were the most frequently detected serogroups. The antibody titers ranged from 1:200 to 1:800. The positivity rate determined with real-time PCR was 29.5% (95% CI, 18.05–40.94), and the leptospiral concentrations ranged from 1.07 to 12,500 leptospires per milliliter urine. Among the 24 animals with MAT-reactive serum samples, 18 also had urine samples with positive real-time PCR results; thus 75% of animals had positive results with both techniques. The kappa coefficient between tests of 0.784 (95% CI, 0.539–1.0) indicated substantial agreement. The sensitivity and specificity of real-time PCR versus MAT were 75.0% (95% CI, 57.7–92.3) and 100%, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values were 100% and 86.7% (95% CI, 75.7–96.4), respectively.

Conclusion: The results demonstrated the complementary nature of MAT and real-time PCR analyses in diagnosing bovine leptospirosis: combined use of both tests enhanced diagnostic accuracy. Real-time PCR detected Leptospira infection and bacterial renal excretion, thus providing insights into the presence and extent of environmental contamination, whereas the MAT identified seropositivity, antibody titers, and the serogroups associated with infection.

Cockroaches, particularly Blattella germanica and Periplaneta americana, are among the most medically important insects, because of their close association with human living environments. They act as a critical reservoir and vector for a diverse range of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These pathogens pose substantial public health challenges, including infectious diseases such as typhoid fever, dysentery, and cholera. Moreover, cockroaches act as carriers by harboring these pathogens on their external surfaces and within their gastrointestinal tracts. When cockroaches come into contact with food or other surfaces in human environments, they can facilitate pathogen transmission, thus increasing the risk of disease outbreaks. This review comprehensively examines the major pathogen categories associated with cockroaches, explores their mechanisms and efficiency as disease vectors, and assesses the global public health threats posed by these insects. Additionally, it discusses potential control strategies, to provide a robust scientific foundation for future research and the development of effective prevention measures.

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS), caused by the tick-borne severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV), is a disease that is endemic to East Asia and has mortality rates reaching 30%. Despite its substantial public health impact, no vaccines or antiviral treatments are currently available. The SFTSV genome encodes key structural proteins, including glycoproteins (Gn and Gc) and nucleocapsid protein (NP), which serve as critical vaccine targets. This Commentary reviews the current status of SFTSV-related vaccine platforms-such as viral vectors, inactivated viruses, DNA, mRNA, and protein-based approaches-and highlights the immune responses elicited by these platforms against key antigens, particularly glycoproteins and NP. Future research directions are additionally proposed to accelerate the development of effective SFTSV vaccines by leveraging insights from existing studies.

Objective: Because varicella zoster virus (VZV) infections are continually increasing, vaccine efficacy must be enhanced. To date, the inefficient in vivo utilization of antigens and adjuvants has limited vaccine-induced immune protection against VZV infection. Therefore, improving the antigen and adjuvant utilization efficiency is crucial to enhance VZV vaccine performance.

Methods: To achieve favorable VZV antigen and adjuvant utilization efficiency, we constructed a co-delivery system based on manganese-coordinated lipid nanoparticles (Mn-LNPs). Palmitic acid was coordinated with manganese through hydrothermal synthesis. Furthermore, 1.6 molar palmitic acid-Mn was added to four commercial lipid nanoparticle components (SM-102:DSPC:CHO-HP:DSG-PEG2000 in a 50:10:37.5:2.5 molar ratio) to encapsulate VZV glycoprotein E (gE) antigen and CpG adjuvant by using a microfluidic chip. We characterized Mn-LNP size and morphology through transmission electron microscopy and quantified the manganese on palmitic acid-Mn through X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. We also evaluated the performance of the Mn-LNP co-delivery system in enhancing VZV vaccine-induced immune responses in a mouse model.

Results: The Mn-LNPs comprised positively charged spherical particles of approximately 270 nm in diameter, which encapsulated VZV gE antigen and CpG adjuvant in a 1:2 mass ratio. The Mn-LNP co-delivery system, compared with aluminum adjuvant, significantly enhanced VZV gE antigen-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses (1.47-fold and 5.66-fold enhanced IFN-γ response for CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells; 2.25-fold and 2.64-fold enhanced TNF-α response for CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells; and 2.62-fold and 3.17-fold enhanced IL-2 response for CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells). Moreover, the Mn-LNPs, compared with commercial aluminum adjuvant, significantly enhanced the antigen-specific IgG2b subclass response.

Conclusion: The Mn-LNP co-delivery system efficiently delivered both VZV antigen and CpG adjuvant, and markedly improved the VZV vaccine-induced T cell response. Thus, this Mn-LNP co-delivery system has promising potential in promoting VZV vaccine efficacy.

Objective: This study aimed to determine the annually circulation of Venezuelan (VEEV), Eastern (EEEV), and Western (WEEV) equine encephalitis viruses, identify patterns in case occurrence, and assess the associations with environmental and geographic factors.

Methods: Serum samples from 548 ill equines exhibiting fever, depression, and/or neurologic symptoms were analyzed over 11 years (2009–2019) using IgM MAC ELISA. Logistic models were used to determine the associations between VEEV seropositivity and environmental conditions.

Results: VEEV was detected annually in 23.4% (128/548) of the cases, while EEEV appeared intermittently (1.5% [8/548]). No WEEV cases were detected, likely due to avian migratory flyway routes. VEEV exhibited a 6-year peak pattern linked to La Niña in Guanacaste province. Eleven human alphavirus cases were confirmed between 2013 and 2019, including 1 fatal VEEV case in a child.

Conclusion: These findings underscore the need for continued equine alphavirus surveillance within the One Health framework.

Objective: Evidence indicates that coxsackievirus B5 (CVB5) can cause meningitis, and hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), and is associated with type 1 diabetes. No effective drug or vaccine is available for treating CVB5 infections or controlling outbreaks.

Methods: The Vero-cell-adapted vaccine candidate strain KM299-L05 underwent comprehensive phylogenetic analysis, sequence alignment, assessment of virulence in BALB/c mice, Vero cell acclimation, three successive rounds of plaque purification, preparation of experimental vaccines, and immunogenicity evaluation.

Results: KM299-L05 was the most virulent strain in BALB/c mice. Its infectious titer reached 10^8.0 CCID₅₀/mL in Vero cells, and it belonged to the Chinese epidemic genotype C3. An inactivated CVB5 vaccine derived from the KM299-L05 strain produced neutralizing antibodies with a titer range from 1:384 to 1:768 against a variety of clinical CVB5 isolates, particularly the prototype strain. Maternal antibodies fully protected all examined suckling BALB/c mice against lethal challenge.

Conclusion: Although the study was limited to neonatal mice, our findings suggested that the KM299-L05 strain has potential as a novel CVB5 vaccine candidate in China, and provide a rationale for the development of a CVB5 vaccine.

Mongolia’s unique socio-economic and geographical characteristics, including its vast grasslands and reliance on traditional livestock herding, pose substantial risks regarding the emergence and transmission of novel zoonotic pathogens. In Mongolia, which has a livestock population exceeding 64 million, close interactions between humans and animals are integral to the livelihoods of rural communities but heighten the risk of zoonotic pathogen transmission. Major livestock-associated zoonoses in Mongolia, such as brucellosis, tuberculosis, anthrax, and rabies, have serious impacts on humans, livestock, and the economy. These risks are exacerbated by traditional practices, such as the consumption of raw or unpasteurized animal products, and challenges such as climate change, limited access to veterinary services, and nomadic herding. Collaborative zoonotic pathogen control strategies involving health and veterinary sectors have been implemented, including surveillance programs and vaccination efforts. However, gaps remain in disease management, surveillance, and public education. Strengthening infrastructure and adopting a One Health approach is critical to mitigating zoonotic pathogen risks for both humans and animals.

Objective: This study was aimed at assessing the prevalence of infection with Blastocystis, an intestinal protozoan parasite, among school-aged children, and to identify associated risk factors. Although the role of Blastocystis in gastrointestinal symptoms remains debated, it may pose public health concerns, particularly in children with weakened immune systems.

Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between June and October 2024 among children 5–15 years of age in Makokou and surrounding areas of northeastern Gabon. A real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection kit was used to screen forBlastocystis in stool samples after written informed consent was obtained from the children’s parents or guardians.

Results: A total of 389 school-aged children were enrolled in this study. The overall molecular prevalence of Blastocystis sp. infection was 23.43% (95% confidence interval (CI): [0.19–0.28]). Multivariate analysis revealed several factors significantly associated with elevated odds of infection: having a mother with a low education level (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 6.39; 95% CI [3.16–12.95], p < 0.001), having a mother who were daily worker (aOR = 2.18; 95% CI [1.17–40.5], p = 0.039), living in rural areas (aOR = 2.65; 95% CI [1.56–4.51], p < 0.001), belonging to a household with a low standard of living (aOR = 1.81; 95% CI [1.5–30.99], p = 0.024), having limited access to safe drinking water (aOR = 6.39; 95% CI [3.16–12.95], p < 0.001), and occasionally consuming poorly washed fruits and vegetables (aOR = 2.82; 95% CI [0.99–8.2], p = 0.046).

Conclusion: Blastocystis sp. infection is a major public health issue among children in Gabon, many of whom lack awareness regarding the infection and its transmission routes. Health education initiatives targeting hygiene practices and prevention strategies, particularly those focused on decreasing exposure to water contaminated by domestic animals, are urgently needed.

Objectives: The reappearance of monkeypox (mpox) in Nigeria since 2017 presented with significant epidemiological shifts which has raised serious public health concern both in the domestic and international front. To implement effective response strategies against the disease, understanding its genomic diversity and transmission dynamics is essential.This study aimed to investigate the genomic diversity and epidemiological patterns of mpox clade II in Nigeria from 2017 to 2024.

Methods: 153 mpox clade II genome sequences obtained from 25 Nigerian states were retrieved from Nextstrain and GenBank. After quality assurance, 96 sequences were selected for further analysis. IQ-TREE and BEAST were used in constructing phylogenetic trees, while Nextclade was used for mutation profiling. Epidemiological data were obtained from NCDC and WHO reports.

Results: Lineage A.2.3 of mpox clade II was observed to be the most prevalent during the outbreak of 2022. This coincides with the highest national incidence of mpox. Several non-synonymous mutations were identified, predominantly in the envelope proteins, and DNA polymerase. Regional disparities were observed, with the south-south and south-east regions reporting the highest case burdens. It was also observed that males aged 21–40 years were the prominently mpox infections age group.

Conclusion: These findings emphasize the significance of continuous genomic surveillance and region-specific interventions for controlling mpox in Nigeria. Understanding local lineage dynamics and demographic risk factors is crucial for targeted outbreak responses.

Background: Caliciviruses are associated with several disease symptoms, such as diarrhea, respiratory infections, vesicular lesions, reproductive failure, and fatal hemorrhagic disease in animals. Novel disease-causing caliciviruses continue to be discovered in mammals.

Methods: Through a metagenomics approach, we identified and genetically characterized a novel calicivirus in swab samples from the noses, throats, and anuses of walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) with diarrhea in Qingdao Polar Haichang Ocean Park, China, between April and December 2018.

Results: The genomic sequence of the novel walrus calicivirus CV-HMU-1 was 7,172 nt long and included two complete open reading frames (ORFs) encoding classical calicivirus NS protein amino acid motifs. Phylogenetic analysis based on amino acid sequences including viral protein 1 (VP1) and viral protein 2 (VP2) from representatives of 11 known genera confirmed that CV-HMU-1 is a new member of the Salovirus genus of the Caliciviridae family. The non-structural (NS) CV-HMU-1 shared 75.68% and 64.68% amino acid identity with Atlantic salmon calicivirus and Ameiurus nebulosus calicivirus 1, respectively, which are also Salovirus species. However, further research is needed to verify the direct link between CV-HMU-1 and diarrhea.

Conclusions: CV-HMU-1 is proposed as a novel Caliciviridae species. Our findings not only expand virological classification but also indicate evolutionary links in calicivirus transmission between terrestrial and marine mammal hosts.

Objective: This study was aimed at analyzing the pathogenic characteristics of Bordetella hinzii (B. hinzii), and elucidating its antibiotic resistance mechanisms, virulence gene distribution, and vaccine development potential.

Methods: Genomes of 38 global strains were downloaded from the NCBI database. After quality control with CheckM, pan-genome analysis was performed with Roary, SNP-based phylogenetic trees were constructed with snippy, and antibiotic resistance genes (CARD database) and virulence genes (VFDB database) were predicted with abricate. Bioinformatics tools were integrated to screen candidate vaccine proteins.

Results: All strains carried intrinsic resistance genes, including efflux pumps (MexAB-OprM) and the β-lactamase HBL-1, which conferred resistance to ten antibiotic classes. Core virulence genes (bplA-L, bvgAS, and flagella-associated genes) were highly conserved (detection rate >92.1%). SNP analysis classified the strains into six clades, and human-derived isolates showed host-specific clustering. The pan-genome was open (7,530 genes; Heaps’ law parameter B = 0.35). Two outer membrane proteins, LptD and BamD, were identified as vaccine candidates (antigenicity scores >0.4; no host homology).

Conclusion: B. hinzii exhibits cross-host transmission risks, driven by conserved virulence genes and an open genome enabling adaptive evolution. LptD and BamD represent potential vaccine targets requiring further validation. This study provides a theoretical basis for clinical management and prevention strategies.

Ticks have garnered significant research interest owing to their ability to vector pathogens into humans and animals. The intricate symbiotic associations between ticks and tick microbiota substantially influence developmental processes, reproductive success, and potential to serve as vectors for tick-transmitted diseases. This paper reviews the epidemiology of diseases transmitted by ticks and delves into the composition and function of tick endosymbionts in transmission and infection. This review also highlights the role of tick immunity in maintaining gut homeostasis. Finally, tick symbiont-pathogen interactions and potential strategies for controlling tick-borne diseases by leveraging symbiotic relationships are discussed.

In past decades, numerous emerging infectious diseases have markedly affected global health and social-economic development. Consequently, the concept of “disease X” has been developed, and lists of the pathogens with potential to cause future pandemics have been proposed and updated several times by the World Health Organization. Herein, we analyzed the major features of pathogens with high probability to cause future COVID-19-like pandemics, on the basis of their transmission routes, animal-human interfaces, herd immunity barriers, and evolutionary and mutational characteristics. We also evaluated high-priority viral infectious diseases with potential to become disease X in the future, on the basis of their transmission pathways, including airborne/respiratory, vector-borne, and direct contact. Overall, viruses had much greater likelihood of becoming “pathogen X” than either bacteria or other microorganisms. Respiratory viruses, particularly RNA viruses, have notably high potential to become pathogen X. Vector-borne viruses might also become pathogen X, and mosquito-borne viruses would be more likely than tick-borne viruses to do so. Many contagious viral infectious diseases lead to severe clinical outcomes but have relatively low likelihood of causing global pandemics. Coronaviruses in theCoronaviridae and influenza viruses in the Orthomyxoviridae were identified as top-priority pathogens X with potential to cause the next COVID pandemic.

Objective: The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance is increasing among gram-positive bacteria, particularly the resistance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to β-lactam antibiotics.

Methods: Checkerboard minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays, time-killing assays, enzyme inhibition assays, hemolysis tests, and cytotoxicity analyses were performed to confirm the synergistic effects of tunicamycin (TUN) in combination with β-lactam antibiotics at levels without potential cytotoxicity.

Results: TUN at ≤ 1 μg/mL decreased the MICs of cephalosporins or penicillins against MRSA strain USA300, which became sensitive. TUN showed synergistic effects with cefuroxime sodium (FIC index ≤ 0.19) against tested gram-positive bacterial strains of both human clinical and animal origin. Time-killing assays indicated that the combination treatment eliminated MRSA 3–9 h after inoculation. Furthermore, we confirmed the better synergy of specific β-lactam antibiotics at potentially cytotoxicity-free concentrations in combination with TUN against β-lactam-resistant gram-positive microorganisms.

Conclusion: This study provides an experimental basis for combination treatment with TUN and β-lactam antibiotics with specific chemical structures for the clinical treatment of gram-positive bacterial infections.

Objective: Clinicians’ understanding of prevalence is key in diagnostic test interpretation. In high-prevalence scenarios, the post-test probability of a positive test result can approach 100%, whereas in low-prevalence situations, the post-test probability might only slightly exceed the initial low pre-test probability. Herein, we present an example of this issue in the context of interpreting Lyme disease test results in high- versus low-incidence states.

Methods: We present a thought experiment demonstrating the effects of prevalence on the interpretation of early Lyme disease serologic testing.

Results: A positive test result was found to be more than 30 times more likely to be a false positive than a true positive in Arkansas.

Conclusions: In locations with low Lyme disease incidence, efforts might be better spent on thoroughly working up alternative diagnoses before considering testing for Lyme disease. Furthermore, we suggest that clinicians in low-incidence states in the southern U.S. consider waiting before treating patients empirically with antibiotics for clinical scenarios consistent with early Lyme disease, because southern tick-associated rash illness in the southern U.S. commonly mimics the classic erythema migrans rash associated with Lyme disease, but is mild and self-limiting.

Two Irish tourists, a 72-year-old male and his 60-year-old wife, developed symptoms of meningoencephalitis after traveling to Spain. Both complained of a holocranial headache, vomiting, and fevers. Toscana virus (TOSV) infection was diagnosed based on serology. Cultures and PCR were negative for other pathogens. Both blood (serum) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were tested to diagnose TOSV infection. Specifically, CSF and serum samples were processed using real-time RT-PCR and ELISA serologic assays. Symptomatic treatment led to quick recovery and both patients were discharged from the hospital within 1 week. These cases highlight the importance of considering TOSV in the differential diagnosis of acute meningitis, especially in travelers to endemic regions. The lack of awareness among clinicians and specific screening recommendations may lead to underestimation of the TOSV incidence.

In the first half of 2025, cholera, mpox, measles, dengue fever, chikungunya, malaria, and Zika virus spread globally, and severe outbreaks occurred in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Afghanistan. The primary drivers were enhanced pathogen adaptability and healthcare system vulnerabilities. These diseases showed remarkable spatial heterogeneity and dynamic evolution, influenced by climate, healthcare resources, and vector control. Temperature and precipitation played major roles in mosquito-borne disease transmission, and rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns extended the zones of vector suitability. Four major challenges in arboviral disease control are summarized herein: vector ecology complexity, diagnostic-therapeutic access disparities, fragility of public health infrastructure, and climate-driven transmission expansion. Future prospects and recommendations include enhancing international cooperation, innovating prevention and control technologies, boosting public health system capacity, and addressing climate change to decrease the risk of mosquito-borne disease transmission.

Orientia tsutsugamushi (Ot), an intracellular bacterium in the family Rickettsiaceae, is the etiological agent of scrub typhus. Understanding of the immunologic responses to Ot infection, particularly immunity after infection, has remained a major knowledge gap. Although anti-Ot IgG appears to be short-lived in infected humans, recent studies have reported autoreactive IgM antibodies in people with scrub typhus, including antibodies reactive to nuclear components, DNA, and platelets. However, mechanistic studies of B cell responses in the secondary lymphoid organs of infected humans are severely lacking. This article highlights feasible methods to investigate important aspects of humoral immunity, and avenues to obtain samples from post-mortem and ante-mortemOt-infected people. A pioneer study identified that serum passive transfer could protect against homologous Ot challenge. Studies comparing humoral immune responses to Ot Karp versus Gilliam strains have revealed impaired B cell and germinal center (GC) responses during severe, but not self-limiting, infection in C57BL/6 mice. Further studies are needed, particularly in people with scrub typhus, to help understand and define deficiencies in the acute B cell response and long-lived humoral immunity.

Objective: Rabies is a lethal zoonotic viral disease that affects mammals. Although Costa Rica has not reported any cases of canine rabies since 1987, cases of bat-transmitted rabies virus in domestic animals are recorded annually. Cases in wild carnivores remain sporadic, and surveillance of these species has intensified during the past 7 years. Herein, we present three cases of gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) infected with bat-associated rabies virus (Desmodus rotundus rabies virus) in residential neighborhoods of Costa Rica.

Methods: Brain tissue samples from the foxes were analyzed with histological and molecular methods, including RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing.

Results: Test findings confirmed the presence of vampire bat rabies virus in wild mammals (gray fox) inhabiting peri-urban areas near humans and domestic animals.

Conclusions: This study underscores the urgent need to review current rabies protocols to ensure timely provision of prophylactic medical care for people and pets with suspected exposure. Furthermore, educating the public regarding the risks associated with rabies transmission in wildlife is essential to prevent incidents with potential to endanger public health.

Objective: Livestock workers are exposed to bioaerosols comprising pathogens including influenza D virus (IDV), influenza A (IAV), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), all of which can colonize the upper airways (e.g., anterior nares) and pose public health risks. The role of the nasal microbiome in occupational exposure is not well understood.

Methods: Here, we characterized the nasal microbiomes of US dairy workers to investigate the microbiome’s effects on pathogen carriage. We collected 237 lavages from 31 dairy workers to determine the presence of influenzas A, C, and D; methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA); and MRSA. Nasal lavages were analyzed via PCR to quantify workers’ nasal microbiomes, and differences in microbiome characteristics were analyzed according to pathogen presence.

Results: Overall, 32.1% of lavages tested positive for MSSA, 11.4% tested positive for MRSA, 17.3% tested positive for IDV, 2.5% tested positive for IAV, and 1.3% tested positive for ICV. Nasal samples positive for IAV and those positive for MSSA clustered separately with robust Aitchison PCA, but no significant differences in alpha diversity were observed. Differential abundance analysis revealed significant differences in genera among lavages testing positive for MRSA, MSSA, IDV, and IAV (e.g., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Bacillus).

Conclusions: Future work is needed to ascertain whether the microbiome might protect against pathogen exposures among livestock workers.

Chapare virus (CHAV), an emerging Bolivian arenavirus causing severe hemorrhagic fever, provides a critical case study for rethinking pandemic preparedness in an era of escalating zoonotic threats. With its case-fatality rate exceeding 60% and documented human-to-human transmission, CHAV exemplifies the convergence of natural spillover risks and potential bioterrorism concerns, which warrant its classification alongside U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) category A priority pathogens. This study examines how military-derived Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE) frameworks, including syndromic surveillance networks and advanced biodetection technologies, might transform preparedness for high-consequence arenaviruses. Climate-driven rodent migration in South America exacerbates outbreak risks, and the absence of point-of-care diagnostics and approved therapeutics leaves global health systems vulnerable. We demonstrate how conflict-tested tools, such as portable genomic sequencers and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)-style biosurveillance protocols, could be repurposed for real-time CHAV monitoring in endemic regions. The analysis identifies urgent gaps in biosecurity policy, particularly regarding rodent-borne viruses, and proposes a dual-pathway strategy to strengthen One Health surveillance while integrating biodefense infrastructure to mitigate both natural outbreaks and intentional releases. This work underscores the imperative to bridge civilian and military preparedness paradigms for emerging zoonoses with pandemic potential.

Leishmaniasis is a neglected endemic, vector-borne tropical disease that poses a substantial public health threat in Jordan, yet data on visceral leishmaniasis, particularly in human cases, remain limited. To our knowledge, this article is the first peer-reviewed report describing the clinical and molecular aspects of the locally acquired pediatric visceral leishmaniasis cases in Jordan. Current literature associated with the disease’s emergence in the region is also reviewed. Three pediatric cases presenting symptoms of visceral leishmaniasis were clinically evaluated. Diagnosis was confirmed according to bone marrow aspirates, cytology, molecular techniques, and sequencing to identify the causative Leishmania species. Two cases were caused by L. infantum, and one case was caused by L. tropica. The sequences of the studied samples showed a high similarity to regional isolates instead of the isolated strains showed close genetic similarity to regional isolates. The identification of autochthonous human visceral leishmaniasis cases in Jordan is a critical public health concern. The emergence of such cases in new geographic areas might strain healthcare services, particularly for vulnerable populations. Improved surveillance, research, and crisis management plans for both human and canine leishmaniasis in Jordan are urgently needed.

Background: Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne viral disease caused by the dengue virus, the prevalence of which has sharply increased in recent years worldwide. The indigenous dengue fever epidemic triggered by imported cases continues to pose a serious challenge to public health in China with a trend of expanding towards higher latitudes. The three largest local outbreaks of dengue fever in China since 2014 occurred in 2019, 2023, and 2024. A comparative analysis is needed to identify changes in the epidemiological characteristics of dengue fever during this period and to provide targeted prevention and control measures.

Methods: A descriptive epidemiologic analysis method was performed to compare the basic characteristics of dengue fever between four phases (2019, 2020-2022, 2023, and 2024) with respect to geographic distribution, seasonality, imported sources, and composition of cases. The data on dengue fever cases were obtained from the Chinese Notifiable Reported Infectious Disease System (CNRIDS). The clinical criteria for diagnosing dengue fever were based on the guidebook published by National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

Results: Between 2019 and 2024 a total of 67,389 cases of dengue fever were reported in mainland China, including 8189 imported and 59,200 indigenous cases. In 2024, the reported cases of dengue fever covered 28 provincial-level administrative divisions (PLADs), 217 cities, and 895 counties with more involved areas than 2023 (28 PLADs, 195 cities, and 739 counties) but less than 2019 (29 PLADs, 246 cities, and 1269 counties). Dengue fever cases were located primarily on border areas of Yunnan (21,309 [36.0%]) and the Pearl River Delta region (15,829 [26.7%]). Most imported dengue cases (92.1% [7546/8189]) of imported cases originated from the Southeast Asian region. The rapid growth of indigenous cases (weekly reported cases > 500) in 2023 started 3 weeks earlier than 2019. In 2024 the local outbreak of dengue fever exhibited the earliest onset and had the longest duration (238 days [3 May-27 December]) compared to 218 days (25 May-29 December) in 2023 and 202 days (24 May-11 December) in 2019. Inter-provincial transmission of dengue fever rose progressively between 2019 and 2024, as follows: 2.4% (2019); 6.2% (2023); and 6.5% (2024). Notably, Yunnan accounted for 90.1% of total inter-provincial transmission of dengue fever in 2023, whereas Guangdong became the primary source in 2024 (96.4%).

Background: In northeastern China, tick-borne diseases pose a major public health challenge, which is exacerbated by environmental and anthropogenic changes. This study was aimed at assessing the risk of tick bites and the effectiveness of protective measures in an endemic region, and investigating the influences of socio-demographic, behavioral, and landscape factors.

Methods: A comprehensive online survey was conducted among 3000 participants from Heilongjiang, Liaoning, and Jilin provinces between July and August 2022. Data on self-reported tick bites, protective measures, and associated socio-demographic characteristics were gathered. Landscape analysis was conducted with satellite imagery, and the Shannon diversity index (SHDI) and forest patch density (PD) were selected to quantify landscape factors. Factors influencing tick bite incidence were identified with a logistic regression model, and linkages between landscape characteristics and exposure risk were assessed with spatial statistics.

Results: Twenty-one percent of respondents reported experiencing tick bites, primarily during the active tick season (May to October). The self-reported incidence of tick-borne diseases (e.g., tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), Lyme disease (LD), and severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS)) varied across provinces, and notable socio-demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, occupation, and lifestyle) associated with tick exposure were identified. Adoption of protective measures was high (80.3%) among the surveyed population, particularly among those who had previously experienced tick bites. Landscape analysis revealed an inverse relationship between land use diversity and tick bite incidence, thus suggesting that areas with lower land use diversity might have higher tick bite risk.

Conclusions: The study highlights the multifaceted nature of tick-borne disease risk in northeastern China and the importance of integrated strategies encompassing awareness, behavioral change, and environmental management to decrease tick exposure and prevent disease transmission. These insights might assist public health authorities in developing targeted interventions to combat the spread of tick-borne diseases in the region.

A wild Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) exhibiting neurological symptoms was rescued from a nearby human settlement adjoining a tiger reserve in South India. The animal was taken into observatory care for further observation. The animal was found to be sluggish, anorexic, and ataxic, with noticeable listlessness, and to exhibit insufficient responses to stimuli. Clinical and diagnostic testing via quantitative PCR revealed the presence ofToxoplasma gondii nucleic acid material in the whole blood. Treatment with oral clindamycin and supportive therapy was accordingly commenced. The tiger was housed under continued care in a rescue facility with minimal human intervention for the treatment duration. The animal subsequently recovered and was collared for release back into the wild with ongoing monitoring. To our knowledge, this study provides the first report of clinical toxoplasmosis in a live, wild Bengal tiger from South India. Our findings indicate the pathogenicity and sylvatic transmission of the organism among wild felids, and highlight the importance of monitoring diseases and their ecological effects in niche ecosystems to support long-term conservation efforts.