The Medical Importance of Cockroaches as Vectors of Pathogens: Implications for Public Health

Abstract

Cockroaches, particularly Blattella germanica and Periplaneta americana, are among the most medically important insects, because of their close association with human living environments. They act as a critical reservoir and vector for a diverse range of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These pathogens pose substantial public health challenges, including infectious diseases such as typhoid fever, dysentery, and cholera. Moreover, cockroaches act as carriers by harboring these pathogens on their external surfaces and within their gastrointestinal tracts. When cockroaches come into contact with food or other surfaces in human environments, they can facilitate pathogen transmission, thus increasing the risk of disease outbreaks. This review comprehensively examines the major pathogen categories associated with cockroaches, explores their mechanisms and efficiency as disease vectors, and assesses the global public health threats posed by these insects. Additionally, it discusses potential control strategies, to provide a robust scientific foundation for future research and the development of effective prevention measures.

Keywords

Cockroach / Pathogen / Vector efficiency / Public health

References

[1] Spagna JC, Goldman DI, Lin PC, Koditschek DE, Full RJ. Distributed mechanical feedback in arthropods and robots simplifies control of rapid running on challenging terrain. Bioinspir Biomim. 2007; 2(1): 9-18.

[2] Akbari S, Oshaghi MA, Hashemi-Aghdam SS, Hajikhani S, Oshaghi G, Shirazi MH. Aerobic bacterial community of American cockroach Periplaneta Americana, a step toward finding suitable paratransgenesis candidates. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 2015; 9(1): 35-48.

[3] Hashemi-Aghdam SS, Oshaghi MA. A checklist of Iranian cockroaches (Blattodea) with description of Polyphaga sp as a new species in Iran . J Arthropod Borne Dis. 2015; 9(2): 161-175.

[4] Donkor ES. Nosocomial pathogens: an in-depth analysis of the vectorial potential of cockroaches. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2019; 4(1): 14.

[5] Menasria T, Moussa F, El-Hamza S, Tine S, Megri R, Chenchouni H. Bacterial load of German cockroach (Blattella germanica) found in hospital environment. Pathog Global Health. 2014; 108(3): 141-147.

[6] Pan X, Wang X, Zhang F. New insights into cockroach control: using functional diversity of Blattella germanica symbionts . Insects. 2020; 11(10): 696.

[7] Donkor ES. Cockroaches and food-borne pathogens. Environ Health Insights. 2020; 14: 1178630220913365.

[8] Liu J, Yuan Y, Feng L, Lin C, Ye C, Liu J, et al. Intestinal pathogens detected in cockroach species within different food-related environment in Pudong, China. Sci Rep. 2024; 14(1): 1947.

[9] Abdolmaleki Z, Mashak Z, Safarpoor Dehkordi F. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antibiotic resistance in the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from hospital cockroaches . Antimicrobial resistance and infection control. 2019; 8: 54.

[10] Merad Y, Belkacemi M, Merad Z, Bassaid A, Benmansour Z, Matmour D, et al. Fungal carriage of hospital trapped cockroaches: a prospective study. New Microbes New Infect. 2023; 52: 101086.

[11] Katial RK. Cockroach allergy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2003; 23(3): 483-499.

[12] Sohn MH, Kim KE. The cockroach and allergic diseases. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2012; 4(5): 264-269.

[13] Tatfeng YM, Usuanlele MU, Orukpe A, Digban AK, Okodua M, Oviasogie F, et al. Mechanical transmission of pathogenic organisms: the role of cockroaches. J Vector Borne Dis. 2005; 42(4): 129-134.

[14] Kakumanu ML, Maritz JM, Carlton JM, Schal C. Overlapping community compositions of gut and fecal microbiomes in lab-reared and field-collected German cockroaches. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2018; 84(17): e01037-e01118.

[15] Madani M, Safari F, Khodabandeh M, Izadi S, Zahraei-Ramazani A. Periplaneta americana (Blattodea: Blattidae) fungal pathogens in hospital sewer systems: molecular and phylogenetic approaches. J Water Health. 2023; 21(5): 643-652.

[16] Fotedar R, Shriniwas UB, Verma A. Cockroaches (Blattella germanica) as carriers of microorganisms of medical importance in hospitals. Epidemiol Infect. 1991; 107(1): 181-187.

[17] Turki Jalil A, Abdulhadi MA, Al-Ameer LR, Jaafar Naser S, Merza M, Alsandook T, et al. Bacterial contamination of cockroaches in different wards of hospital, restaurant and home. Heliyon. 2023; 9(11): e22103.

[18] Chamavit P, Sahaisook P, Niamnuy N. The majority of cockroaches from the Samutprakarn province of Thailand are carriers of parasitic organisms. EXCLI J. 2011; 10: 218-222.

[19] Davari B, Hassanvand AE, Salehzadeh A, Alikhani MY, Hosseini SM. Bacterial contamination of collected cockroaches and determination their antibiotic susceptibility in Khorramabad City, Iran. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 2023; 17(1): 63-71.

[20] Salehzadeh A, Tavacol P, Mahjub H. Bacterial, fungal and parasitic contamination of cockroaches in public hospitals of Hamadan, Iran. J Vector Borne Dis. 2007; 44(2): 105-110.

[21] Lemos AA, Lemos JA, Prado MA, Pimenta FC, Gir E, Silva HM, et al. Cockroaches as carriers of fungi of medical importance. Mycoses. 2006; 49(1): 23-25.

[22] Isaac C, Orue PO, Iyamu MI, Ehiaghe JI, Isaac O. Comparative analysis of pathogenic organisms in cockroaches from different community settings in Edo State, Nigeria. Korean J Parasitol. 2014; 52(2): 177-181.

[23] Lin YZ, Cui YB, Yang W, Rao LY, Pan W, Chen JL. [Investigation on species composition of cockroaches and bacteria-carrying on their bodies in five cities of Hainan]. Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi. 2008; 26(1): 77-78.

[24] Dokmaikaw A, Suntaravitun P. Prevalence of parasitic contamination of cockroaches collected from fresh markets in chachoengsao Province, Thailand. Kobe J Med Sci. 2020; 65(4): E118-E123.

[25] Akeju AV, Olusi TA, Obi RE. Intestinal Parasites Associated with American Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria . J Parasit Dis. 2024; 48(1): 67-73.

[26] Jeffery J, Sulaiman S, Oothuman P, Vellayan S, Zainol-Ariffin P, Paramaswaran S, et al. Domiciliary cockroaches found in restaurants in five zones of Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory, peninsular Malaysia. Trop Biomed. 2012; 29(1): 180-186.

[27] Oothuman P, Jeffery J, Aziz AH, Abu Bakar E, Jegathesan M. Bacterial pathogens isolated from cockroaches trapped from paediatric wards in peninsular Malaysia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1989; 83(1): 133-135.

[28] Kinfu A, Erko B. Cockroaches as carriers of human intestinal parasites in two localities in Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008; 102(11): 1143-1147.

[29] Lee S, Kim JY, Yi MH, Lee IY, Lee WJ, Moon HS, et al. Comparative microbiome analysis of three species of laboratory-reared Periplaneta cockroaches. Korean J Parasitol. 2020; 58(5): 537-542.

[30] Nasirian H. Contamination of cockroaches (Insecta: Blattaria) by medically important bacteriae: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Entomol. 2019; 56(6): 1534-1554.

[31] Cloarec A, Rivault C, Fontaine F, Le Guyader A. Cockroaches as carriers of bacteria in multi-family dwellings. Epidemiol Infect. 1992; 109(3): 483-490.

[32] Rivault C, Cloarec A, Le Guyader A. Bacterial load of cockroaches in relation to urban environment. Epidemiol Infect. 1993; 110(2): 317-325.

[33] Argudín MÁ, Mendoza MC, Rodicio MR. Food poisoning and Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins. Toxins (Basel). 2010; 2(7): 1751-1773.

[34] Holt KE, Wertheim H, Zadoks RN, Baker S, Whitehouse CA, Dance D, et al. Genomic analysis of diversity, population structure, virulence, and antimicrobial resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae, an urgent threat to public health. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015; 112(27): E3574-E3581.

[35] Dong N, Yang X, Chan EW, Zhang R, Chen S. Klebsiella species: taxonomy, hypervirulence and multidrug resistance. EBioMedicine. 2022; 79: 103998.

[36] Li Y, Schal C, Pan X, Huang Y, Zhang F. Effects of antibiotics on the dynamic balance of bacteria and fungi in the gut of the German cockroach. J Econ Entomol. 2020; 113(6): 2666-2678.

[37] Graffar M, Mertens S. [Rôle of Blatta in transmission of salmonellosis]. Ann Inst Pasteur (Paris). 1950; 79(5): 654-660.

[38] Kalantari M, Vahedi M, Azizi K, Hosseinpour A, Jamalidoust M, Rezanezhad H, et al. First molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus in cockroaches. Biologia (Bratisl). 2023; 78(4): 1153-1160.

[39] Tetteh-Quarcoo PB, Donkor ES, Attah SK, Duedu KO, Afutu E, Boamah I, et al. Microbial carriage of cockroaches at a tertiary care hospital in ghana. Environ Health Insights. 2013; 7: 59-66.

[40] Guenifi W, Gasmi A, Lacheheb A. [Extra hepatic manifestations of hepatitis A]. Rev Med Interne. 2022; 43(10): 603-607.

[41] Odoom JK, Obodai E, Boateng G, Diamenu S, Attiku K, Avevor P, et al. Detection of vaccine-derived poliovirus circulation by environmental surveillance in the absence of clinical cases. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021; 17(7): 2117-2124.

[42] Rodríguez R, Juárez E, Estívariz CF, Cajas C, Rey-Benito G, Amézquita MOB, et al. Response to vaccine-derived polioviruses detected through environmental surveillance, Guatemala, 2019. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023; 29(8): 1524-1530.

[43] Druyts-Voets E, Van Renterghem L, Gerniers S. Coxsackie B virus epidemiology and neonatal infection in Belgium. J Infect. 1993; 27(3): 311-316.

[44] Abdullah AM, Merza AS, Meerkhan AA. Cockroaches as carriers of human medically important parasites. Parasitol Res. 2024; 123(2): 119.

[45] De U, Mukherjee M, Das S, Kumar R . Hepato-pancreatic ascariasis. Trop Doct. 2010; 40(4): 227-229.

[46] Leung AKC, Leung AAM, Wong AHC, Sergi CM, Kam JKM. Giardiasis: an overview. Recent Pat Inflamm Allergy Drug Discov. 2019; 13(2): 134-143.

[47] Gruchalla RS, Pongracic J, Plaut M, Evans R 3rd, Visness CM, Walter M, et al. Inner City Asthma Study: relationships among sensitivity, allergen exposure, and asthma morbidity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 115(3): 478-485.

[48] Atiokeng Tatang RJ, Tsila HG, Wabo Poné J . Medically important parasites carried by cockroaches in Melong Subdivision, Littoral, Cameroon. J Parasitol Res. 2017; 2017: 7967325.

[49] Mond M, Pietri JE . Horizontal transmission of Salmonella Typhimurium among German cockroaches and its possible mechanisms . Ecol Evol. 2023; 13(5): e10070.

[50] Lequime S, Paul RE, Lambrechts L. Determinants of arbovirus vertical transmission in mosquitoes. PLoS Pathog. 2016; 12(5): e1005548.

[51] Suo S, Ma T, Wang H, Wang Y, Wang X. [Sensitization characteristics of cockroach in Beijing area]. Lin Chuang Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2022; 36(11): 835-840.

[52] Xie A, Zhang Y, Breed MF, An X, Yao H, Huang Q, et al. Terrestrial invertebrate hosts of human pathogens in urban ecosystems. Eco Environ Health. 2024; 3(3): 369-380.

[53] Ray R, Potts R, Pietri JE. The persistence of Escherichia coli infection in German cockroaches (Blattodea: Blattellidae) varies between host developmental stages and is influenced by the gut microbiota. J Med Entomol. 2020; 57(6): 1964-1971.

[54] Turner M, Peta V, Pietri JE. New insight into the relationship between Salmonella Typhimurium and the German cockroach suggests active mechanisms of vector-borne transmission. Res Microbiol. 2022; 173(3): 103920.

[55] Turner M, Van Hulzen L, Pietri JE. The gut microbiota induces melanin deposits that act as substrates for fimA-mediated aggregation of Salmonella Typhimurium and enhance infection of the German cockroach vector . Microbiol Spectr. 2023; 11(5): e0211923.

[56] Guzman J, Vilcinskas A. Bacteria associated with cockroaches: health risk or biotechnological opportunity? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020; 104(24): 10369-10387.

[57] Sacchi L, Grigolo A, Laudani U, Ricevuti G, Dealessi F. Behavior of symbionts during oogenesis and early stages of development in the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (Blattodea). J Invertebr Pathol. 1985; 46(2): 139-152.

[58] Sacchi L, Grigolo A, Mazzini M, Bigliardi E, Baccetti B, Laudani U. Symbionts in the oocytes of Blattella germanica (L.) (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae): their mode of transmission . Int J Insect Morphol Embryol. 1988; 17(6): 437-446.

[59] Sacchi L, Corona S, Grigolo A, Laudani U, Selmi MG, Bigliardi E. The fate of the endocytobionts of Blattella germanica (Blattaria: Blattellidae) and Periplaneta Americana (Blattaria: Blattidae) during embryo development . Ital J Zool. 1996; 63(1): 1-11.

[60] Carrasco P, Pérez-Cobas AE, van de Pol C, Baixeras J, Moya A, Latorre A. Succession of the gut microbiota in the cockroach Blattella germanica. Int Microbiol. 2014; 17(2): 99-109.

[61] Renelies-Hamilton J, Germer K, Sillam-Dussès D, Bodawatta KH, Poulsen M. Disentangling the relative roles of vertical transmission, subsequent colonizations, and diet on cockroach microbiome assembly. mSphere. 2021; 6(1): e01023-e01120.

[62] Dukes HE, Tinker KA, Ottesen EA. Disentangling hindgut metabolism in the American cockroach through single-cell genomics and metatranscriptomics. Front Microbiol. 2023; 14: 1156809.

[63] Beránková T, Arora J, Romero Arias J, Buček A, Tokuda G, Šobotník J, et al. Termites and subsocial roaches inherited many bacterial-borne carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) from their common ancestor. Commun Biol. 2024; 7(1): 1449.

[64] Schauer C, Thompson CL, Brune A. The bacterial community in the gut of the Cockroach Shelfordella lateralis reflects the close evolutionary relatedness of cockroaches and termites. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2012; 78(8): 2758-2767.

[65] Ciudad L, Piulachs MD, Bellés X. Systemic RNAi of the cockroach vitellogenin receptor results in a phenotype similar to that of the Drosophila yolkless mutant. FEBS J. 2006; 273(2): 325-335.

[66] Li L, Jing A, Xie M, Li S, Ren C. Applications of RNA interference in American cockroach. J Vis Exp. 2021;(178).

[67] Tateishi K, Watanabe T, Nishino H, Mizunami M, Watanabe H. Silencing the odorant receptor co-receptor impairs olfactory reception in a sensillum-specific manner in the cockroach. iScience. 2022; 25(5): 104272.

[68] Shirai Y, Piulachs MD, Belles X, Daimon T. DIPA-CRISPR is a simple and accessible method for insect gene editing. Cell Rep Methods. 2022; 2(5): 100215.