Device-Integrated Covalent Organic Framework Photocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Production: From Molecular Design to Scalable Reactors

Abstract

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is an important green oxidant and a promising liquid energy carrier, yet it is still produced mainly via the energy-intensive anthraquinone process. Photocatalytic synthesis from water and oxygen offers a mild route to H₂O₂ generation and holds promise for on-site production driven by sunlight. Covalent organic frameworks (COFs)-based photocatalysts are particularly attractive because their porosity and optoelectronic structures can be tailored at the molecular level. However, progress is increasingly limited not by the intrinsic activity measured in small-batch experiments, but by device- and reactor-related limitations, including oxygen transport, light utilization, catalyst immobilization and recovery, and suppression of H₂O₂ decomposition during H₂O₂ production. These factors complicate scale-up and hinder meaningful comparisons across studies. This review summarizes COF-based photocatalytic H₂O₂ synthesis from catalyst design to reactor implementation. We first discuss the main reaction pathways for oxygen reduction and the coupled oxidation reactions and highlight material design strategies in four levels, including framework-level design, active-site engineering, post-synthesis modification and multicomponent COF, and interface engineering of heterostructures that promote charge separation and selective O₂ activation. We further review reactor and device designs that make COF powders into scalable systems. By analyzing reported examples, we classify three representative reactor formats, such as membrane-assisted photoreactors, panel-type photoreactors, and continuous-flow photoreactors. We clearly discuss how each addresses transport and stability bottlenecks to improve H₂O₂ concentration, productivity, and operational stability. We further summarize in situ utilization of photogenerated H₂O₂ in one-pot oxidation and water-treatment processes, linking H₂O₂ generation to practical chemical transformations. Finally, we outline key next steps, including standardized testing and reporting, scalable fabrication of COF-based devices with controlled interfaces, and mechanism-guided modeling under realistic operating conditions, so that COF-enabled solar H₂O₂ production can be evaluated and scaled in practical reactor settings.

Keywords

covalent organic framework / hydrogen peroxide / molecular design / photocatalysis / scalable reactors

References

[1] Y. Y. Yan, W. J. Niu, W. W. Zhao, et al., “Recent Advances and Future Perspectives of Transition Metal-Supported Carbon With Different Dimensions for Highly Efficient Electrochemical Hydrogen Peroxide Preparation,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 5 (2023): 2303506.

[2] C. He, C. Xia, F. M. Li, J. Zhang, W. Guo, and B. Y. Xia, “Rational Design of Oxygen Species Adsorption on Nonnoble Metal Catalysts for Two-Electron Oxygen Reduction,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 1 (2023): 2303233.

[3] M. Li, P. Song, M. Hou, W. Feng, D. Zhao, and J. Zhang, “Atomic-Level Functionalized Carbon-Based Materials for Effective Electrosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide: A Review,” Chemical Engineering Journal 479 (2024): 147608.

[4] K. He, Z. Huang, C. Chen, C. Qiu, Y. L. Zhong, and Q. Zhang, “Exploring the Roles of Single Atom in Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis,” Nano-Micro Letters 16, no. 1 (2024): 23.

[5] J. Yang, X. Zeng, M. Tebyetekerwa, et al., “Engineering 2D Photocatalysts for Solar Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 23 (2024): 2400740.

[6] A. Hayat, Z. Ajmal, A. Y. A. Alzahrani, et al., “The Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production: Design Strategies, Photocatalyst Advancements, Environmental Applications and Future Prospects,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 522 (2025): 216218.

[7] W. Zhang, Y. Tian, H. He, L. Xu, W. Li, and D. Zhao, “Recent Advances in the Synthesis of Hierarchically Mesoporous TiO₂ Materials for Energy and Environmental Applications,” National Science Review 7, no. 11 (2020): 1702–1725.

[8] Z. Li, Z. Li, C. Zuo, and X. Fang, “Application of Nanostructured TiO₂ in UV Photodetectors: A Review,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 28 (2022): 2109083.

[9] J. M. Campos-Martin, G. Blanco-Brieva, and J. L. G. Fierro, “Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis: An Outlook Beyond the Anthraquinone Process,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 45, no. 42 (2006): 6962–6984.

[10] Y. R. Zheng, S. Hu, X. L. Zhang, et al., “Black Phosphorous Mediates Surface Charge Redistribution of CoSe₂ for Electrochemical H₂O₂ Production in Acidic Electrolytes,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 43 (2022): 2205414.

[11] M. Lu, Q. Li, J. Liu, et al., “Installing Earth-Abundant Metal Active Centers to Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient Heterogeneous Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 254 (2019): 624–633.

[12] Q. Zhao, Y. Wang, W. H. Lai, et al., “Approaching a High-Rate and Sustainable Production of Hydrogen Peroxide: Oxygen Reduction on Co–N–C Single-Atom Electrocatalysts in Simulated Seawater,” Energy & Environmental Science 14, no. 10 (2021): 5444–5456.

[13] B. J. Su, J. J. Foo, G. Z. S. Ling, and W. Ong, “Synergistic Redox Reactions Toward Co-Production of H₂O₂ and Value-Added Chemicals: Dual-Functional Photocatalysis to Achieving Sustainability,” SusMat 4, no. 3 (2024): e192.

[14] A. Zadehnazari, F. Auras, and A. Abbaspourrad, “Ultrafast Charge Dynamics in Nitrogen-Rich Covalent Organic Frameworks for Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 36 (2025): 2503961.

[15] B. C. Moon, B. Bayarkhuu, K. A. I. Zhang, D. K. Lee, and J. Byun, “Solar-Driven H₂O₂ Production via Cooperative Auto- and Photocatalytic Oxidation in Fine-Tuned Reaction Media,” Energy & Environmental Science 15, no. 12 (2022): 5082–5092.

[16] E. Chai, L. Huang, L. Jiao, Z. Xiao, X. Zhang, and Y. Wang, “A Multicomponent Triformylphoroglucinol-Based Covalent Organic Framework for Overall Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis,” Chemical Communications 60, no. 25 (2024): 3405–3408.

[17] Y. Zhu, X. Liu, H. Liu, et al., “Regulating Nitrogen Vacancies Within Graphitic Carbon Nitride to Boost Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” SusMat 2, no. 5 (2022): 617–629.

[18] W. Dong, Z. Qin, X. Liu, and L. Li, “Nitrogen-Doped Engineering in Covalent Organic Frameworks for Photocatalytic Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide†,” Chinese Journal of Chemistry 43, no. 13 (2025): 1504–1512.

[19] W. K. Han, H. S. Lu, J. X. Fu, et al., “Targeted Construction of a Three-Dimensional Metal Covalent Organic Framework With Spn Topology for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Chemical Engineering Journal 449 (2022): 137802.

[20] I. E. Khalil, P. Das, H. Küçükkeçeci, et al., “Hierarchical Porous Covalent Organic Frameworks: The Influence of Additional Macropores on Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution and Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Chemistry of Materials 36, no. 17 (2024): 8330–8337.

[21] M. Deng, J. Sun, A. Laemont, et al., “Extending the π-Conjugation System of Covalent Organic Frameworks for More Efficient Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Green Chemistry 25, no. 8 (2023): 3069–3076.

[22] C. Shu, P. Xie, X. Yang, et al., “Integrating β-Ketoenamine Linkages Into Covalent Organic Frameworks Toward Efficient Overall Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 38 (2024): 25927–25933.

[23] Y. Lin, J. Zou, X. Wu, et al., “Efficient Proton Transfer and Charge Separation Within Covalent Organic Frameworks via Hydrogen-Bonding Network to Boost H₂O₂ Photosynthesis,” Nano Letters 24, no. 21 (2024): 6302–6311.

[24] W. Dong, Z. Qin, K. Wang, et al., “Isomeric Oligo(Phenylenevinylene)-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks With Different Orientation of Imine Bonds and Distinct Photocatalytic Activities,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 5 (2023): e202216073.

[25] Y. Chen and D. Jiang, “Photocatalysis With Covalent Organic Frameworks,” Accounts of Chemical Research 57, no. 21 (2024): 3182–3193.

[26] A. P. Cote, A. I. Benin, N. W. Ockwig, M. O'Keeffe, A. J. Matzger, and O. M. Yaghi, “Porous, Crystalline, Covalent Organic Frameworks,” Science 310, no. 5751 (2005): 1166–1170.

[27] A. P. Côté, H. M. El-Kaderi, H. Furukawa, J. R. Hunt, and O. M. Yaghi, “Reticular Synthesis of Microporous and Mesoporous 2D Covalent Organic Frameworks,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 129, no. 43 (2007): 12914–12915.

[28] A. Rodríguez-Camargo, K. Endo, and B. V. Lotsch, “Celebrating Ten Years of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Solar Energy Conversion: Past, Present and Future,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 49 (2024): e202413096.

[29] A. López-Magano, S. Daliran, A. R. Oveisi, et al., “Recent Advances in the Use of Covalent Organic Frameworks as Heterogenous Photocatalysts in Organic Synthesis,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 24 (2023): 2209475.

[30] N. Y. Huang, Y. T. Zheng, D. Chen, Z. Y. Chen, C. Z. Huang, and Q. Xu, “Reticular Framework Materials for Photocatalytic Organic Reactions,” Chemical Society Reviews 52, no. 22 (2023): 7949–8004.

[31] J. Wu, Z. Cui, Y. Su, et al., “Tuning on Passive Interfacial Cooling of Covalent Organic Framework Hydrogel for Enhancing Freshwater and Electricity Generation,” SusMat 4, no. 5 (2024): e231.

[32] W. Zhao, P. Yan, B. Li, et al., “Accelerated Synthesis and Discovery of Covalent Organic Framework Photocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 144, no. 22 (2022): 9902–9909.

[33] J. Sun, H. Sekhar Jena, and C. Krishnaraj, “Pyrene-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 19 (2023): e202216719.

[34] J. Y. Yue, J. X. Luo, Z. X. Pan, et al., “Regulating the Topology of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Boosting Overall H₂O₂ Photogeneration,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 24 (2024): e202405763.

[35] J. Y. Yue, L. P. Song, Z. X. Pan, et al., “Regulating the H₂O₂ Photosynthetic Activity of Covalent Organic Frameworks Through Linkage Orientation,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 7 (2024): 4728–4737.

[36] W. Dong, X. Yu, Z. Qin, Y. Chen, S. Ren, and L. Li, “Synergistic Enhancement of Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution in Covalent Organic Frameworks via Isoreticular Design, Isomerism, and Protonation,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 39 (2025): e202511200.

[37] W. Liang, M. Gao, J. Zhu, et al., “Ultralong-Lived Excitons in Metallo-Quinoline-Incorporated Covalent Organic Frameworks Promote Photoreductive Cross-Coupling,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 44 (2025): e202508849.

[38] X. Han, W. Dong, L. Li, and X. Zhou, “Improved Photocatalytic Activity of TiO₂ With a Regulated Covalent Organic Framework Thin Film,” Chemical Communications 59, no. 79 (2023): 11863–11866.

[39] T. Liu, Z. Pan, J. J. M. Vequizo, et al., “Overall Photosynthesis of H₂O₂ by an Inorganic Semiconductor,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (2022): 1034.

[40] J. Sun, J. Chakraborty, M. Deng, et al., “Metal–Organic Frameworks and Covalent Organic Frameworks as Photocatalysts for H₂O₂ Production From Oxygen and Water,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 40 (2023): 21516–21540.

[41] Y. Zhang, J. Qiu, B. Zhu, G. Sun, B. Cheng, and L. Wang, “Hollow Spherical Covalent Organic Framework Supported Gold Nanoparticles for Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 57 (2024): 143–153.

[42] J. Wang, D. Kim, J. H. Park, S. Ryu, M. Shokouhimehr, and H. W. Jang, “Prospects and Promises in Two-Electron Water Oxidation for Hydrogen Peroxide Generation,” Energy & Fuels 37, no. 23 (2023): 17629–17651.

[43] J. P. Liao, M. Zhang, P. Huang, et al., “Flexible Units Induced Three-Dimensional Covalent Organic Frameworks With a Heteromotif Molecular Junction for Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 6 (2024): 3778–3787.

[44] L. Li, X. Lv, Y. Xue, H. Shao, G. Zheng, and Q. Han, “Custom-Design of Strong Electron/Proton Extractor on COFs for Efficient Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 15 (2024): e202320218.

[45] J. Y. Yue, Z. X. Pan, P. Yang, and B. Tang, “Bi₄O₅Br₂/COF S-Scheme Heterojunctions for Boosting H₂O₂ Photoproduction Under Air and Pure Water,” ACS Materials Letters 6, no. 9 (2024): 3932–3940.

[46] X. Ma, S. Li, Y. Gao, et al., “S-Scheme Heterojunction Fabricated From Covalent Organic Framework and Quantum Dot for Enhanced Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide From Water and Air,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 51 (2024): 2409913.

[47] W. Zhang, M. Sun, J. Cheng, X. Wu, and H. Xu, “Regulating Electron Distribution in Regioisomeric Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient Solar-Driven Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 18 (2025): 2500913.

[48] Y. He, G. Huang, X. Guo, et al., “Engineering Intermolecular C–F···C=O Interactions in Covalent Organic Framework Promotes Dual-Path H₂O₂ Photosynthesis for Sustainable Disinfection,” Water Research 285 (2025): 124112.

[49] K. Zhang, L. Tian, J. Yang, et al., “Pauling-Type Adsorption of O₂ Induced by Heteroatom Doped ZnIn₂S₄ for Boosted Solar-Driven H₂O₂ Production,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 5 (2024): e202317816.

[50] H. Chen, H. S. Jena, X. Feng, K. Leus, and P. Van Der Voort, “Engineering Covalent Organic Frameworks as Heterogeneous Photocatalysts for Organic Transformations,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61, no. 47 (2022): e202204938.

[51] Z. Yong and T. Ma, “Solar-to- H₂O₂ Catalyzed by Covalent Organic Frameworks,” Angewandte Chemie 135, no. 49 (2023): e202308980.

[52] H. Wang, H. Wang, Z. Wang, et al., “Covalent Organic Framework Photocatalysts: Structures and Applications,” Chemical Society Reviews 49, no. 12 (2020): 4135–4165.

[53] T. He and Y. Zhao, “Covalent Organic Frameworks for Energy Conversion in Photocatalysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 34 (2023): e202303086.

[54] C. Krishnaraj, H. Sekhar Jena, and L. Bourda, “Strongly Reducing (Diarylamino)Benzene-Based Covalent Organic Framework for Metal-Free Visible Light Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Generation,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 142, no. 47 (2020): 20107–20116.

[55] L. Chen, L. Wang, Y. Wan, et al., “Acetylene and Diacetylene Functionalized Covalent Triazine Frameworks as Metal-Free Photocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Production: A New Two-Electron Water Oxidation Pathway,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 2 (2020): 1904433.

[56] S. Cao and L. Piao, “Considerations for a More Accurate Evaluation Method for Photocatalytic Water Splitting,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 42 (2020): 18312–18320.

[57] P. Li, F. Ge, Y. Yang, et al., “1D Covalent Organic Frameworks Triggering Highly Efficient Photosynthesis of H₂O₂ via Controllable Modular Design,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 12 (2024): e202319885.

[58] C. Shu, X. Yang, L. Liu, et al., “Mixed-Linker Strategy for the Construction of Sulfone-Containing D–A–A Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 22 (2024): e202403926.

[59] Y. Ju, H. Lin, G. Tan, et al., “Regulating the Electronic Structure of Covalent Organic Frameworks via Heterocyclic Isomers for Highly Efficient Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Generation,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 5658.

[60] R. Liu, Y. Chen, H. Yu, et al., “Linkage-Engineered Donor-Acceptor Covalent Organic Frameworks for Optimal Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide From Water and Air,” Nature Catalysis 7, no. 2 (2024): 195–206.

[61] H. L. Nguyen, “Covalent Organic Frameworks for Atmospheric Water Harvesting,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 17 (2023): 2300018.

[62] R. Freund, O. Zaremba, G. Arnauts, et al., “The Current Status of MOF and COF Applications,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 45 (2021): 23975–24001.

[63] Y. Huang, H. Gu, H. Zhang, et al., “Synergistic V-Nb Sites Modulate Selective Alkene Epoxidation With In Situ Photogenerated H₂O₂ Over COF@MXene Heterostructures,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 16 (2024): 12541–12550.

[64] Y. He, J. Zhao, Y. T. Sham, et al., “Efficient Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis Over CdS/COF for Water Disinfection: The S-Scheme Pathway, Oxygen Adsorption, and Reactor Design,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 49 (2023): 17552–17563.

[65] Y. Tian, D. Deng, L. Xu, et al., “Strategies for Sustainable Production of Hydrogen Peroxide via Oxygen Reduction Reaction: From Catalyst Design to Device Setup,” Nano-Micro Letters 15, no. 1 (2023): 122.

[66] X. Zhang, F. Li, S. Yang, et al., “Multi-Scale Structure Engineering of Covalent Organic Framework for Electrochemical Charge Storage,” SusMat 4, no. 1 (2024): 4–33.

[67] V. S. Vyas, F. Haase, L. Stegbauer, et al., “A Tunable Azine Covalent Organic Framework Platform for Visible Light-Induced Hydrogen Generation,” Nature Communications 6, no. 1 (2015): 8508.

[68] Y. Luo, B. Zhang, C. Liu, et al., “Sulfone-Modified Covalent Organic Frameworks Enabling Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Generation via One-Step Two-Electron O₂ Reduction,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 26 (2023): e202305355.

[69] S. Feng, H. Cheng, F. Chen, et al., “Rational Design of Covalent Organic Frameworks With Redox-Active Catechol Moieties for High-Performance Overall Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 10 (2024): 7736–7745.

[70] H. Xu, S. Xia, C. Li, et al., “Programming Tetrathiafulvalene-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks for Promoted Photoinduced Molecular Oxygen Activation,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 29 (2024): e202405476.

[71] L. Zhai, Z. Xie, C. X. Cui, et al., “Constructing Synergistic Triazine and Acetylene Cores in Fully Conjugated Covalent Organic Frameworks for Cascade Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Chemistry of Materials 34, no. 11 (2022): 5232–5240.

[72] Y. Hou, P. Zhou, F. Liu, et al., “Efficient Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide by Cyano-Containing Covalent Organic Frameworks From Water, Air and Sunlight,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 6 (2024): e202318562.

[73] D. Cao, J. Du, J. Li, Q. Sun, J. Guan, and J. Liu, “Hydroxyl-Functionalized Donor–Acceptor Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production Under Visible Light,” ACS Catalysis 15, no. 5 (2025): 3584–3594.

[74] H. Cheng, H. Lv, J. Cheng, L. Wang, X. Wu, and H. Xu, “Rational Design of Covalent Heptazine Frameworks With Spatially Separated Redox Centers for High-Efficiency Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 7 (2022): 2107480.

[75] X. Wang, H. Li, S. Zhou, et al., “Donor–Acceptor Fully Sp² -Carbon Conjugated Covalent Organic Frameworks for Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 30 (2025): 2424035.

[76] B. Li, J. Chen, K. Wang, D. Qi, T. Wang, and J. Jiang, “Ethynyl-Linked Donor–Acceptor Covalent Organic Framework for Highly Efficient Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Advanced Energy Materials 15, no. 18 (2025): 2404497.

[77] X. Ding, T. Wang, B. Yu, et al., “10% Conversion of Imine Into Thiazole in Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Generation,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 33 (2025): 2422291.

[78] Q. Rong, X. Chen, S. Li, and S. He, “Dual Regulation of Charge Separation and the Oxygen Reduction Pathway by Encapsulating Phosphotungstic Acid Into the Cationic Covalent Organic Framework for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 16, no. 5 (2024): 5758–5768.

[79] X. Bai, L. Guo, T. Jia, and Z. Hu, “Superhydrophilic Covalent Organic Frameworks Accelerate Photocatalytic Production of Hydrogen Peroxide Through Proton Channels,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 22 (2024): 13116–13126.

[80] Z. Xie, X. Chen, W. Wang, et al., “Variation of Chemical Microenvironment of Pores in Hydrazone-Linked Covalent Organic Frameworks for Photosynthesis of H₂O₂,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 39 (2024): e202410179.

[81] Q. Liao, Q. Sun, H. Xu, et al., “Regulating Relative Nitrogen Locations of Diazine Functionalized Covalent Organic Frameworks for Overall H₂O₂ Photosynthesis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 41 (2023): e202310556.

[82] C. Huang, Y. Zhang, R. Shen, et al., “Triplet Exciton-Enhanced Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide Enabled by Topologically Tuned Covalent Organic Frameworks,” Advanced Materials 38, no. 3 (2025): e11092.

[83] J. Yang, Z. Zhao, X. Liu, et al., “Homologous Heteropolyaromatic Covalent Organic Frameworks for Enhancing Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production and Aerobic Oxidation,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 7654.

[84] T. Yang, F. Kong, Y. Chen, A. Kong, X. Cui, and J. Shi, “Paired Photoproduction of H₂O₂ and 3,4-Dihydroisoquinoline Over Covalent Pyrene-(Thio)Urea Frameworks With Electron Push-Pull Effect,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 15 (2025): e202424110.

[85] J. Chen, S. Yan, F. Wang, et al., “Redox-Mediated TEMPO-Based Donor-Acceptor Covalent Organic Framework for Efficient Photo-Induced Hydrogen Peroxide Generation,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 18 (2025): e202500924.

[86] H. Zhang, R. Ma, K. Chi, Y. Liu, and Y. Zhao, “Hydrogen Radical Mediated Concerted Electron−Proton Transfer in 1D Sulfone-Based Covalent Organic Framework for Boosting Photosynthesis of H₂O₂,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 44 (2025): e202516657.

[87] J. Yang, Y. Liu, Z. Chen, et al., “Indole-Linkages as Base-Activated Sites in a Covalent Organic Framework for Efficient Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide Under Alkaline Conditions,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 65, no. 3 (2026): e22298.

[88] K. Yang, L. Chen, K. Xiong, et al., “Bisite Sulfonate-Functionalized Covalent Organic Frameworks With Efficient and Dynamic Proton Transportation for Accelerating H₂O₂ Photosynthesis,” Advanced Functional Materials 36, no. 15 (2026): e20900.

[89] R. Liu, M. Zhang, F. Zhang, et al., “Linkage Microenvironment Modulation in Triazine-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Small 21, no. 10 (2025): 2411625.

[90] H. Lin, G. Tan, Y. Ju, P. Su, F. Chen, and Y. Tang, “Thiophene-Doped Fully Conjugated Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Generation,” CCS Chemistry 8, no. 3 (2026): 1393–1406.

[91] Z. Li, X. Shi, H. Cheng, et al., “Atomically Dispersed Iron Active Sites on Covalent Organic Frameworks for Artificial Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 7 (2024): 2302797.

[92] Y. Liu, L. Li, H. Tan, et al., “Fluorination of Covalent Organic Framework Reinforcing the Confinement of Pd Nanoclusters Enhances Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 145, no. 36 (2023): 19877–19884.

[93] X. Zhang, H. Su, P. Cui, et al., “Developing Ni Single-Atom Sites in Carbon Nitride for Efficient Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 7115.

[94] J. Qiu, K. Meng, Y. Zhang, et al., “COF/in₂S₃ S-Scheme Photocatalyst With Enhanced Light Absorption and H₂O₂-Production Activity and Fs-TA Investigation,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 24 (2024): 2400288.

[95] G. Xia, J. Qiu, D. Dai, Y. Tang, Z. Wu, and J. Yao, “Photocatalytic Production of H₂O₂ From Wastewater Under Visible Light by Chlorine and ZnIn₂S₄ Co-Decorated TpPa-1,” Catalysis Science & Technology 14, no. 3 (2024): 590–597.

[96] Y. Gong, H. Ren, X. Sang, et al., “Construction of a Redox Pathway Through a Polyoxometalate and Covalent Organic Framework for H₂O₂ Photosynthesis,” Chemical Communications 60, no. 24 (2024): 3335–3338.

[97] H. Guo, S. Wang, X. Chen, et al., “Engineering a Covalent Organic Framework-Based Type-II Heterojunction for Enhanced Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Synthesis,” Nature Synthesis 4, no. 12 (2025): 1610–1620.

[98] Z. Z. Liang, X. A. Li, Q. Z. Chen, et al., “A Direct Z-Scheme Single-Atom MOC/COF Piezo-Photocatalytic System for Overall Water Splitting,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 14 (2024): 10447–10461.

[99] A. Rodríguez-Camargo, M. W. Terban, M. Paetsch, et al., “Cyclopalladation of a Covalent Organic Framework for Near-Infrared-Light-Driven Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Nature Synthesis 4, no. 6 (2025): 710–719.

[100] J. Feng, Y. Wei, X. Li, et al., “3D-Printed COF/Zeolite Composites for Augmented Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 32 (2025): e202508226.

[101] Y. X. Lin, H. Y. Kuang, S. N. Zhang, et al., “A Polyimide-Based Photocatalyst for Continuous Hydrogen Peroxide Production Using Air and Water Under Solar Light,” CCS Chemistry 4, no. 11 (2022): 3482–3490.

[102] H. Yan, M. Shen, Y. Shen, et al., “Spontaneous Exciton Dissociation in Organic Photocatalyst Under Ambient Conditions for Highly Efficient Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 22 (2022): e2202913119.

[103] F. Liu, P. Zhou, Y. Hou, et al., “Covalent Organic Frameworks for Direct Photosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide From Water, Air and Sunlight,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 4344.

[104] Y. Chen, Y. Guo, T. Wang, et al., “Covalent Organic Framework Photocatalysts for Green and Efficient Photochemical Transformations,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 6495.

[105] Q. Zhu, L. Shi, Z. Li, G. Li, and X. Xu, “Protonation of an Imine-Linked Covalent Organic Framework for Efficient H₂O₂ Photosynthesis Under Visible Light up to 700 Nm,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 32 (2024): e202408041.

[106] J. Yue, Z. Pan, R. Zhang, Q. Xu, P. Yang, and B. Tang, “One-Pot Synthesis of Fully Conjugated Covalent Organic Frameworks via the Pictet–Spengler Reaction for Boosting H₂ O₂ Photogeneration in Real Seawater,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 23 (2025): 2421514.

[107] Z. Chen, H. Weng, C. Chu, et al., “Nitrogen Heterocyclic Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient H₂O₂ Photosynthesis and in Situ Water Treatment,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 6943.

[108] R. Zhu, Y. Liu, W. Han, et al., “Inwardly Directed Linker Propagation: Constructing 3D Covalent Organic Frameworks for Efficient H₂O₂ Photosynthesis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 32 (2025): e202510293.

[109] C. Shao, X. Yu, Y. Ji, et al., “Perfluoroalkyl-Modified Covalent Organic Frameworks for Continuous Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis and Extraction in a Biphasic Fluid System,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 8023.

[110] C. Sun, Y. Han, H. Guo, et al., “Proton Reservoir in Covalent Organic Framework Compensating Oxygen Reduction Reaction Enhances Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 21 (2025): 2502990.

[111] L. Fang, S. Qiu, H. Xu, T. Ye, and L. Li, “Encapsulation of Single-Atoms Into Covalent Organic Frameworks for Highly Efficient and Persistent H₂O₂ Photosynthesis via Biphasic Flow Chemistry,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2504676.

[112] L. Zhang, J. Du, Z. Xie, et al., “Discovery of Highly Fluorescent Covalent Organic Frameworks Through AI-Assisted Iterative Experiment-Learning Cycles,” Nature Chemistry 17, no. 11 (2025): 1645–1654.

[113] C. Shu, L. Wang, X. Yang, et al., “Synthesis of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production Guided by Large Language Models,” Nature Communications 17, no. 1 (2026): 3046.

[114] X. Jia, L. Chen, K. Xiong, et al., “Machine Learning-Accelerated Discovery of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Hydrogen Peroxide Photosynthesis,” Nature Synthesis 25 (2026).

[115] C. X. Liu, Z. W. Zhou, C. X. Cai, et al., “Photoenzyme Coupling System: Covalent Organic Frameworks In Situ Production of Hydrogen Peroxide Cascaded With Unspecific Peroxygenase to Achieve C–H Bonds Selective Activation,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 17, no. 4 (2025): 6347–6356.

[116] Y. Yang, Y. Li, X. Ma, et al., “Direct Z-Scheme WO₃/Covalent Organic Framework (COF) Heterostructure for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production in Water,” Catalysis Science & Technology 13, no. 19 (2023): 5599–5609.

[117] F. Zhang, X. Lv, H. Wang, et al., “p–π Conjugated Covalent Organic Frameworks Expedite Molecular Triplet Excitons for H₂O₂ Production Coupled With Biomass Upgrading,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 17 (2025): 2502220.

[118] M. Deng, L. Wang, Z. Wen, et al., “Donor–Acceptor Sp² Covalent Organic Frameworks for Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production and Tandem Bisphenol-A Degradation,” Green Chemistry 26, no. 6 (2024): 3239–3248.

[119] W. Zhen, D. W. Kang, Y. Fan, et al., “Simultaneous Protonation and Metalation of a Porphyrin Covalent Organic Framework Enhance Photodynamic Therapy,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 146, no. 24 (2024): 16609–16618.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Author(s). SusMat published by Sichuan University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.