Stand age drives divergent microbial metabolic limitations and ecosystem multifunctionality between rhizosphere and bulk soils in subtropical Cryptomeria japonica plantations

Abstract

Soil microorganisms drive ecosystem functioning through metabolisms limited by nutrient availability. Since stand age fundamentally reshapes the forest environment, understanding its effects on microbial metabolic limitations and ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF), particularly between bulk and rhizosphere soil, is critical. Using a 9‒55-year chronosequence of Cryptomeria japonica plantations in subtropical China, we quantified microbial metabolic limitations via extracellular enzyme stoichiometry and assessed EMF using 19 soil parameters encompassing physicochemical properties, microbial biomass, and enzymatic activities. In bulk soil, microbial carbon (C) limitation increased with stand age, while phosphorus (P) limitation decreased. Rhizosphere soils showed quadratic trends in C and P limitations, minimized in near-mature stands (25-year-old). The rhizosphere consistently had higher C limitation, whereas bulk soil showed greater P limitation until over-maturity (55-year-old). EMF in both compartments peaked unimodally in mature stands (35-year-old). C use efficiency primarily governed C limitation in both soils and P limitation in the rhizosphere, while microbial biomass P controlled P limitation in bulk soil. Crucially, microbial P limitation negatively regulated EMF in bulk soil, whereas soil water content and inorganic nitrogen were positive drivers in rhizosphere. Our findings reveal compartment-specific mechanisms through which stand development influences microbial metabolism and EMF, supporting precision management in subtropical plantations.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

forest stand development / soil extracellular enzymatic stoichiometry / microbial metabolic limitation / ecosystem multifunctionality / soil compartments

Highlight

	● Microbial C limitation increased but P declined with stand age in bulk soil.
	● Rhizosphere had higher C, lower P limitation vs. bulk soil, quadratic with age.
	● Soil multifunctionality peaked in mature stands in both compartments.
	● C use efficiency drove microbial C limitation and rhizosphere P limitation.
	● Microbial P limitation regulated soil multifunctionality in bulk soil.

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