The combined application of ethylenediurea and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi alleviates ozone damage to Medicago sativa L.

Highlights

● EDU reduces O₃ sensitivity of alfalfa by mediating antioxidant enzyme activities.

● AM symbiosis increases stomatal conductance and plant O₃ sensitivity.

● AM fungi increase stomatal conductance by increasing plant stomatal density.

● AM inoculation combined with EDU can mitigate negative effects of O₃ on plants.

Abstract

Ozone (O₃) is a phytotoxic air pollutant, both ethylenediurea (EDU) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can affect plant O₃ sensitivity. However, the underlying mechanisms of EDU and AM fungi on plant O₃ sensitivity are unclear, and whether the combined application of the two can alleviate O₃ damage has not been verified. In this study, an open-top chamber experiment was conducted to examine the effects of EDU and AM inoculation on growth and physiological parameters of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) plants under O₃ enrichment. The results showed that EDU significantly decreased O₃ visible injury (28.67%−68.47%), while AM inoculation significantly increased O₃ visible injury. Mechanistically, the reduction of plant O₃ sensitivity by EDU was mediated by antioxidant enzyme activities rather than stomatal conductance. Although AM inoculation increased antioxidant enzyme activities (4.99%−211.23%), it significantly increased stomatal conductance (42.69%) and decreased specific leaf weight (12.98%), the negative impact was overwhelming. Therefore, AM inoculation increased alfalfa’s O₃ sensitivity. Furthermore, we found AM inoculation increased stomatal conductance by increasing stomatal density. The research indicated EDU was sufficient to counteract the negative effects of AM inoculation on O₃ sensitivity. The combined application of EDU and AM fungi could largely alleviate the adverse effects of O₃ on plant performance.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

ozone sensitivity / antioxidant enzyme / stomatal conductance / specific leaf weight / ethylenediurea (EDU) / alfalfa

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Author contributions

Conceptualization, B.C. and Z.H.; methodology, R.Y., X.Y., X.Z., S.G., X.H. and L.W.; data analysis, R.Y. and X.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, R.Y.; writing—review and editing, B.C.; funding acquisition, B.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data availability statement

The data sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2017YFE0127700) and the Key Research and Development Program of Shandong Province, China (Grant No. 2021CXGC010803).

Electronic supplementary material

Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at https://doi.org/10.1007/s42832-023-0231-1 and is accessible for authorized users.

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