Unlocking the potential of stimuli-responsive liquid crystal polymer bio-interfaces for adaptive cell modulation

Ruth M. C. Verbroekken; Burcu Gumuscu; Albert P. H. J. Schenning

doi:10.1002/rpm2.70043

Responsive Materials ›› 2026, Vol. 4 ›› Issue (2) :e70043 DOI: 10.1002/rpm2.70043

PERSPECTIVE

Unlocking the potential of stimuli-responsive liquid crystal polymer bio-interfaces for adaptive cell modulation

Author information +

History +

PDF (2394KB)

Abstract

This Perspective discusses the potential of stimuli-responsive liquid crystal polymer (LCP) bio-interfaces in modulating cell behavior as next generation dynamic artificial scaffolds. Unlike current artificial biomaterials that have static properties, LCPs offer fast, reversible, and spatially programmable deformation that reflects the dynamic properties of the natural materials and systems. In this Perspective, we first outline static materials and key interface properties known to influence cellular processes, then provide an overview of LCPs operating under physiological conditions, crosslinking strategies, and alignment mechanisms relevant for designing responsive systems. Subsequently, we reorganize existing findings on LCP bio-interfaces into two conceptual categories: (1) static LCPs that demonstrate baseline biocompatibility and cellular alignment effects, and (2) dynamic LCPs that enable externally triggered dynamics for on-demand mechanomodulation. The categorization highlights that, despite their intrinsic stimuli-responsiveness, LCP-based dynamic bio-polymer interfaces remain scarcely explored in cellular studies. Finally, we discuss current material limitations, operational challenges under physiological conditions, and technological barriers such as stiffness mismatch, biocompatibility, and stimulus compatibility, and propose future research directions for unlocking adaptive, multi-stimuli-responsive, and integrated-readout LCP platforms for cell modulation.

Keywords

bio-interface / biophysical cue / dynamic / liquid crystal polymer / stimuli-responsive

Cite this article

Download citation ▾

Ruth M. C. Verbroekken, Burcu Gumuscu, Albert P. H. J. Schenning. Unlocking the potential of stimuli-responsive liquid crystal polymer bio-interfaces for adaptive cell modulation. Responsive Materials, 2026, 4 (2) : e70043 DOI:10.1002/rpm2.70043

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户忘记密码

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within

[1]	A. E. Miller, P. Hu, T. H. Barker, Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2020, 9, e1901445.

[2]	J. D. Humphrey, E. R. Dufresne, M. A. Schwartz, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2014, 15, 802.

[3]	R. O. Hynes, Science 2009, 326, 1216.

[4]	A. Naba, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2024, 25, 865.

[5]	K. C. Clause, T. H. Barker, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2013, 24, 830.

[6]	A. Saraswathibhatla, D. Indana, O. Chaudhuri, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2023, 24, 495.

[7]	O. Chaudhuri, J. Cooper-White, P. A. Janmey, D. J. Mooney, V. B. Shenoy, Nature 2020, 584, 535.

[8]	A. Dede Eren, A. W. A. Lucassen, U. Tuvshindorj, R. Truckenmüller, S. Giselbrecht, E. D. Eren, M. O. Tas, P. Sudarsanam, J. de Boer, Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 2022, 10, 863721.

[9]	R. Langer, D. A. Tirrell, Nature 2004, 428, 487.

[10]	W. Zhao, Y. Li, X. Zhang, R. Zhang, Y. Hu, C. Boyer, F. J. Xu, J. Control. Release 2020, 323, 24.

[11]	A. I. Teixeira, P. F. Nealey, C. J. Murphy, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2004, 71, 369.

[12]	N. D. Evans, E. Gentleman, J. Mater. Chem. B 2014, 2, 2345.

[13]	R. G. Wells, Hepatology 2008, 47, 1394.

[14]	T. Yeung, P. C. Georges, L. A. Flanagan, B. Marg, M. Ortiz, M. Funaki, N. Zahir, W. Ming, V. Weaver, P. A. Janmey, Cell Motil Cytoskeleton 2005, 60, 24.

[15]	K. A. Mosiewicz, L. Kolb, A. J. van der Vlies, M. P. Lutolf, Biomater. Sci. 2014, 2, 1640.

[16]	H. B. Wang, M. Dembo, Y. L. Wang, Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Physiol. 2000, 279, 1345.

[17]	R. J. Pelham, Y. L. Wang, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1997, 94, 13661.

[18]	A. Hamraoui, AIP Adv. 2025, 15, 90702.

[19]	B. Wójciak-Stothard, Z. Madeja, W. Korohoda, A. Curtis, C. Wilkinson, Cell Biol. Int. 1995, 19, 485.

[20]	J. Ballester-Beltrán, M. J. P. Biggs, M. J. Dalby, M. Salmerón-Sánchez, A. Leal-Egaña, Front. Mater. 2015, 2, 139685.

[21]	G. Abagnale, M. Steger, V. H. Nguyen, N. Hersch, A. Sechi, S. Joussen, B. Denecke, R. Merkel, B. Hoffmann, A. Dreser, U. Schnakenberg, A. Gillner, W. Wagner, Biomaterials 2015, 61, 316.

[22]	V. A. Schulte, M. Díez, M. Möller, M. C. Lensen, Biomacromolecules 2009, 10, 2795.

[23]	T. Turiv, J. Krieger, G. Babakhanova, H. Yu, S. V. Shiyanovskii, Q. H. Wei, M. H. Kim, O. D. Lavrentovich, Sci. Adv. 2020, 6, eaaz6485.

[24]	A. Sharma, A. Neshat, C. J. Mahnen, A. Nielsen, J. Snyder, T. L. Stankovich, B. G. Daum, E. M. LaSpina, G. Beltrano, Y. Gao, S. Li, B. W. Park, R. J. Clements, E. J. Freeman, C. Malcuit, J. A. McDonough, L. T. Korley, T. Hegmann, E. Hegmann, Macromol. Biosci. 2015, 15, 200.

[25]	F. Robotti, S. Bottan, F. Fraschetti, A. Mallone, G. Pellegrini, N. Lindenblatt, C. Starck, V. Falk, D. Poulikakos, A. Ferrari, Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 10887.

[26]	A. T. Nguyen, S. R. Sathe, E. K. F. Yim, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 2016, 28, 183001.

[27]	E. Makhija, D. S. Jokhun, G. V. Shivashankar, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2016, 113, E32.

[28]	E. A. Cavalcanti-Adam, T. Volberg, A. Micoulet, H. Kessler, B. Geiger, J. P. Spatz, Biophys. J. 2007, 92, 2964.

[29]	M. Schvartzman, M. Palma, J. Sable, J. Abramson, X. Hu, M. P. Sheetz, S. J. Wind, Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 1306.

[30]	D. A. Brown, R. E. Beygui, W. R. MacLellan, H. Laks, J. C. Y. Dunn, B. M. Wu, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2005, 74, 419.

[31]	G. Joseph, R. P. Orme, T. Kyriacou, R. A. Fricker, P. Roach, ACS Omega 2021, 6, 19901.

[32]	N. R. Richbourg, N. A. Peppas, V. I. Sikavitsas, J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 2019, 13, 1275.

[33]	H. El-Mohri, Y. Wu, S. Mohanty, G. Ghosh, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2017, 74, 146.

[34]	S. R. Peyton, A. J. Putnam, J. Cell. Physiol. 2005, 204, 198.

[35]	A. Agrawal, O. Adetiba, H. Kim, H. Chen, J. G. Jacot, R. Verduzco, J. Mater. Res. 2015, 30, 453.

[36]	M. Bril, S. Fredrich, N. A. Kurniawan, Smart Mater. Med. 2022, 3, 257.

[37]	L. Rossano, C. Cimmino, S. Cavalli, M. Ventre, P. A. Netti, Adv. Mater. Inter. 2018, 5, 1800890.

[38]	F. Mauro, C. F. Natale, V. Panzetta, P. A. Netti, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2024, 16, 29823.

[39]	C. Rianna, L. Rossano, R. H. Kollarigowda, F. Formiggini, S. Cavalli, M. Ventre, P. A. Netti, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2016, 26, 7572.

[40]	L. Li, E. Alsema, N. R. M. Beijer, B. Gumuscu, ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2024, 10, 6974.

[41]	M. Bril, A. Saberi, I. Jorba, M. C. van Turnhout, C. M. Sahlgren, C. V. C. Bouten, A. P. H. J. Schenning, N. A. Kurniawan, Adv. Sci. 2023, 10, 2303136.

[42]	H. Aubin, J. W. Nichol, C. B. Hutson, H. Bae, A. L. Sieminski, D. M. Cropek, P. Akhyari, A. Khademhosseini, Biomaterials 2010, 31, 6941.

[43]	N. P. Skillin, L. Danielsen, B. E. Kirkpatrick, J. D. Hoang, L. P. Hibbard, K. S. Anseth, T. J. White, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 36, e18226.

[44]	A. Cappitti, F. Palmieri, R. Garella, A. Tani, F. Chellini, M. Salzano De Luna, C. Parmeggiani, R. Squecco, D. Martella, C. Sassoli, Biomater. Adv. 2023, 155, 213674.

[45]	M. E. Prendergast, M. D. Davidson, J. A. Burdick, Biofabrication 2021, 13, 044108.

[46]	K. K. Tian, S. C. Huang, X. X. Xia, Z. G. Qian, Biomacromolecules 2022, 23, 1777.

[47]	B. V. Slaughter, S. S. Khurshid, O. Z. Fisher, A. Khademhosseini, N. A. Peppas, Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 3307.

[48]	T. Fang, L. Cao, S. Chen, J. Fang, J. Zhou, L. Fang, C. Lu, Z. Xu, Mater. Des. 2018, 144, 129.

[49]	C. Rianna, A. Calabuig, M. Ventre, S. Cavalli, V. Pagliarulo, S. Grilli, P. Ferraro, P. A. Netti, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7, 16984.

[50]	D. You, L. Lin, M. Dong, Y. Wu, Y. Hu, X. Hu, Y. Shao, Y. Xie, M. Xu, G. Chen, R. Lan, H. Ma, Y. Zhou, H. Wang, B. Jin, M. Yu, Smart Mater. Med. 2025, 6, 240.

[51]	N. P. Pinchin, H. Guo, H. Meteling, Z. Deng, A. Priimagi, H. Shahsavan, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, e2303740.

[52]	M. Pilz da Cunha, S. Ambergen, M. G. Debije, E. F. G. A. Homburg, J. M. J. den Toonder, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Adv. Sci. 2020, 7, 1902842.

[53]	Z. Deng, A. Priimagi, K. Li, H. Zeng, Commun. Mater. 2025, 6, 173.

[54]	N. Torras, K. E. Zinoviev, J. Esteve, A. Sánchez-Ferrer, J. Mater. Chem. C 2013, 1, 5183.

[55]	S. J. D. Lugger, R. M. C. Verbroekken, D. J. Mulder, A. P. H. J. Schenning, ACS Macro Lett. 2022, 11, 935.

[56]	S. Li, H. Bai, R. F. Shepherd, H. Zhao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2019, 58, 11182.

[57]	K. M. Herbert, H. E. Fowler, J. M. McCracken, K. R. Schlafmann, J. A. Koch, T. J. White, Nat. Rev. Mater. 2022, 7, 23.

[58]	A. Gruzdenko, I. Dierking, Front. Soft Matter 2022, 2, 1052037.

[59]	M. Pilz Da Cunha, M. G. Debije, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2020, 49, 6568.

[60]	S. Herrera-Posada, C. Mora-Navarro, P. Ortiz-Bermudez, M. Torres-Lugo, K. M. McElhinny, P. G. Evans, B. O. Calcagno, A. Acevedo, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2016, 65, 369.

[61]	Y. Nemati, Q. Yang, F. Sohrabi, J. V. I. Timonen, C. Sánchez-Somolinos, M. Honkanen, H. Zeng, A. Priimagi, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2025, 17, 5316.

[62]	Z. C. Jiang, Q. Liu, Y. Y. Xiao, Y. Zhao, Prog. Polym. Sci. 2024, 153, 101829.

[63]	Y. Yang, S. Zhang, Y. Ji, Y. Wei, J. Wang, X. He, Mater. Today 2024, 74, 167.

[64]	A. A. Beharry, G. A. Woolley, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 4422.

[65]	J. E. Stumpel, D. J. Broer, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 15839.

[66]	G. Such, R. A. Evans, L. H. Yee, T. P. Davis, J. Macromol. Sci., Part C: Polymer Reviews 2003, 43, 547.

[67]	H. J. Jeon, C. G. Simon, G. H. Kim, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2014, 102B, 1580.

[68]	M. Rojas-Rodríguez, T. Fiaschi, M. Mannelli, L. Mortati, F. Celegato, D. S. Wiersma, C. Parmeggiani, D. Martella, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2023, 15, 14122.

[69]	L. Yang, L. Ge, P. Van Rijn, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 25591.

[70]	S. Masterton, M. Ahearne, R. Soc. Open Sci. 2019, 6, 191796.

[71]	Q. Zhu, C. Yin, J. Liang, X. Lin, B. Cui, Y. Dai, Surf. Interf. 2025, 76, 107946.

[72]	R. G. Flemming, C. J. Murphy, G. A. Abrams, S. L. Goodman, P. F. Nealey, Biomater 1999, 20, 573.

[73]	S. Shirazi, S. Ravindran, L. F. Cooper, Biomaterials 2022, 291, 121903.

[74]	M. J. Vassey, G. P. Figueredo, D. J. Scurr, A. S. Vasilevich, S. Vermeulen, A. Carlier, J. Luckett, N. R. M. Beijer, P. Williams, D. A. Winkler, J. de Boer, A. M. Ghaemmaghami, M. R. Alexander, Adv. Sci. 2020, 7, 1903392.

[75]	S. Vermeulen, N. Roumans, F. Honig, A. Carlier, D. G. A. J. Hebels, A. D. Eren, P. ten Dijke, A. Vasilevich, J. de Boer, Biomaterials 2020, 259, 120331.

[76]	B. Majhy, P. Priyadarshini, A. K. Sen, RSC Adv. 2021, 11, 15467.

[77]	A. J. Engler, S. Sen, H. L. Sweeney, D. E. Discher, Cell 2006, 126, 677.

[78]	P. A. Janmey, D. A. Fletcher, C. A. Reinhart-King, Physiol. Rev. 2020, 100, 695.

[79]	U. Windhorst, P. M. Lalley, in Encyclopedia of Neuroscience (Eds: M. D. Binder, N. Hirokawa, U. Windhorst), 1 edn., Springer, Berlin Heidelberg 2009 Ch. Membrane Potential: Basics.

[80]	H. I. Chang, Y. Wang, in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials (Ed: D. Eberli), InTech, Croatia 2011 Ch. 27.

[81]	S. Metwally, U. Stachewicz, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2019, 104, 109883.

[82]	J. H. Lee, G. Khang, J. W. Lee, H. B. Lee, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 1998, 205, 323.

[83]	Y. Y. Luk, S. F. Campbell, N. L. Abbott, C. J. Murphy, Liq. Cryst. 2004, 31, 611.

[84]	C. Ferrantini, J. M. Pioner, D. Martella, R. Coppini, N. Piroddi, P. Paoli, M. Calamai, F. S. Pavone, D. S. Wiersma, C. Tesi, E. Cerbai, C. Poggesi, L. Sacconi, C. Parmeggiani, Circ. Res. 2019, 124, e44.

[85]	G. Koçer, J. ter Schiphorst, M. Hendrikx, H. G. Kassa, P. Leclère, A. P. H J Schenning, P. Jonkheijm, Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1606407.

[86]	M. Hendrikx, J. ter Schiphorst, E. P. A van Heeswijk, G. Koçer, C. Knie, D. Bléger, S. Hecht, P. Jonkheijm, D. J. Broer, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Small 2018, 14, 1803274.

[87]	R. M. C. Verbroekken, O. K. Savchak, T. F. J. Alofs, A. P. H. J. Schenning, B. Gumuscu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2025, 17, 27871.

[88]	A. M. Lowe, N. L. Abbott, Chem. Mater. 2011, 24, 746.

[89]	S. J. Woltman, G. D. Jay, G. P. Crawford, Nat. Mater. 2007, 6, 929.

[90]	D. Martella, I. Tusa, A. Tubita, A. Negri, M. Turriani, M. Rojas-Rodríguez, M. Salzano De Luna, A. Menconi, C. Parmeggiani, E. Rovida, Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2025, 14, 2403607.

[91]	A. Sharma, T. Mori, C. J. Mahnen, H. R. Everson, M. T. Leslie, A. Nielsen, L. Lussier, C. Zhu, C. Malcuit, T. Hegmann, J. A. McDonough, E. J. Freeman, L. T. J. Korley, R. J. Clements, E. Hegmann, Macromol. Biosci. 2017, 17, 1600278.

[92]	D. Martella, C. Parmeggiani, Chem. Eur. J. 2018, 24, 12206.

[93]	F. Shiralipour, Y. Nik Akhtar, A. Gilmor, G. Pegorin, A. Valerio-Aguilar, E. Hegmann, Crystals 2024, 14, 859.

[94]	D. Martella, P. Paoli, J. M. Pioner, L. Sacconi, R. Coppini, L. Santini, M. Lulli, E. Cerbai, D. S. Wiersma, C. Poggesi, C. Ferrantini, C. Parmeggiani, Small 2017, 13, 1702677.

[95]	Y. Gao, T. Mori, S. Manning, Y. Zhao, A. D. Nielsen, A. Neshat, A. Sharma, C. J. Mahnen, H. R. Everson, S. Crotty, R. J. Clements, C. Malcuit, E. Hegmann, ACS Macro Lett. 2016, 5, 4.

[96]	D. Martella, L. Pattelli, C. Matassini, F. Ridi, M. Bonini, P. Paoli, P. Baglioni, D. S. Wiersma, C. Parmeggiani, Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2019, 8, 1801489.

[97]	T. Bera, E. J. Freeman, J. A. McDonough, R. J. Clements, A. Aladlaan, D. W. Miller, C. Malcuit, T. Hegmann, E. Hegmann, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7, 14528.

[98]	G. Babakhanova, J. Krieger, B. X. Li, T. Turiv, M. H. Kim, O. D. Lavrentovich, J. Biomed. Mater. Res.A 2020, 108, 1223.

[99]	S. Fredrich, T. Engels, A. P. H. J. Schenning, ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 2022, 4, 7751.

[100]

L. Ren, B. Li, Y. He, Z. Song, X. Zhou, Q. Liu, L. Ren, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 15562.

[101]

M. del Pozo Puig, L. Liu, M. Pilz da Cunha, D. J. Broer, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2005560.

[102]

D. Liu, L. Liu, P. R. Onck, D. J. Broer, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2015, 112, 3880.

[103]

J. Jeon, D. Bukharina, M. Kim, S. Kang, J. Kim, Y. Zhang, V. Tsukruk, Responsive Mater. 2024, 2, e20230032.

[104]

R. Lan, X. G. Hu, J. Chen, X. Zeng, X. Chen, T. Du, X. Song, H. Yang, Responsive Mater. 2024, 2, e20230030.

[105]

J. Liu, H. Y. Jiang, J. Q. Tian, Y. Tang, C. B. Feng, X. Y. Zhou, Z. J. Huang, B. X. Li, Y. Q. Lu, Q. Li, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, e24606.

[106]

A. Agrawal, H. Chen, H. Kim, B. Zhu, O. Adetiba, A. Miranda, A. Cristian Chipara, P. M. Ajayan, J. G. Jacot, R. Verduzco, ACS Macro Lett. 2016, 5, 1386.

[107]

S. Courty, J. Mine, A. R. Tajbakhsh, E. M. Terentjev, EPL 2003, 64, 654.

[108]

K. Mehta, A. R. Peeketi, L. Liu, D. Broer, P. Onck, R. K. Annabattula, Appl. Phys. Rev. 2020, 7, 041306.

[109]

H. M. D. Bandara, S. C. Burdette, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 1809.

[110]

F. F. B. Hulshof, Y. Zhao, A. Vasilevich, N. R. M. Beijer, M. de Boer, B. J. Papenburg, C. van Blitterswijk, D. Stamatialis, J. de Boer, Acta Biomater. 2017, 62, 188.

[111]

M. Barnes, S. Cetinkaya, A. Ajnsztajn, R. Verduzco, Soft Matter 2022, 18, 5074.

[112]

N. Wang, J. D. Tytell, D. E. Ingber, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2009, 10, 75.

[113]

S. Asano, S. Ito, K. Takahashi, K. Furuya, M. Kondo, M. Sokabe, Y. Hasegawa, Physiol. Rep. 2017, 5, e13281.

[114]

D. Kaneko, Y. Sasazaki, T. Kikuchi, T. Ono, K. Nemoto, H. Matsumoto, Y. Toyama, Connect. Tissue Res. 2009, 50, 263.

[115]

T. J. White, D. J. Broer, Nat. Mater. 2015, 14, 1087.

[116]

M. Javed, S. Tasmim, M. K. Abdelrahman, C. P. Ambulo, T. H. Ware, Crystals 2020, 10, 420.

[117]

J. Maeng, R. T. Rihani, M. Javed, J. S. Rajput, H. Kim, I. G. Bouton, T. A. Criss, J. J. Pancrazio, B. J. Black, T. H. Ware, J. Mater. Chem. B 2020, 8, 6286.

[118]

M. Cui, Z. Chai, Y. Lu, J. Zhu, J. Chen, Resour. Chem. Mater. 2023, 2, 262.

[119]

L. Yue, X. Wan, T. Türel, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Ž. Tomović, M. G. Debije, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2025, 17, 31685.

[120]

K. Kim, H. Park, K. M. Lim, Toxicol. Res. 2015, 31, 97.

[121]

M. Meinhardt, R. Krebs, A. Anders, U. Heinrich, H. Tronnier, J. Biomed. Opt. 2008, 13, 044030.

[122]

A. Douplik, G. Saiko, I. Schelkanova, V. V. Tuchin, in Lasers for Medical Applications: Diagnostics, Therapy and Surgery (Ed: H. Jelínková), Woodhead Publishing 2013 Ch. 3.

[123]

T. A. Henderson, L. D. Morries, Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2015, 11, 2191.

[124]

M. Dong, A. Babalhavaeji, C. V. Collins, K. Jarrah, O. Sadovski, Q. Dai, G. A. Woolley, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 13483.

[125]

H. Ishitobi, T. Hiramatsu, H.-B. Sun, S. Kawata, S. Shoji, Z. Sekkat, Opt. Express 2008, 16, 14106.

[126]

M. Wegener, M. J. Hansen, A. J. M. Driessen, W. Szymanski, B. L. Feringa, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 17979.

[127]

A. Rullo, A. Reiner, A. Reiter, D. Trauner, E. Y. Isacoff, G. A. Woolley, Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 14613.

[128]

D. B. Konrad, G. Savasci, L. Allmendinger, D. Trauner, C. Ochsenfeld, A. M. Ali, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2020, 142, 6538.

[129]

T. Iba, Y. Kondo, C. L. Maier, J. Helms, R. Ferrer, J. H. Levy, J. Intensive, Care 2025, 13, 1.

[130]

B. D. Knapp, K. C. Huang, Annu. Rev. Biophys. 2022, 51, 499.

[131]

Y. Sapir, S. Cohen, G. Friedman, B. Polyak, Biomaterials 2012, 33, 4100.

[132]

Z. S. Davidson, H. Shahsavan, A. Aghakhani, Y. Guo, L. Hines, Y. Xia, S. Yang, M. Sitti, Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaay0855.

[133]

Q. He, Z. Wang, Y. Wang, A. Minori, M. T. Tolley, S. Cai, Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaax5746.

[134]

J. J. Sandford O’Neill, P. S. Salter, M. J. Booth, S. J. Elston, S. M. Morris, Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 2203.

[135]

A. Sokolov, J. Katuri, J. J. de Pablo, A. Snezhko, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2418846.

[136]

T. Iwase, Y. Kuroda, J. Onaka, A. Emoto, M. Matsukawa, D. Koyama, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2022, 61, 068002.

[137]

C. P. Ambulo, J. J. Burroughs, J. M. Boothby, H. Kim, M. R. Shankar, T. H. Ware, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 37332.

[138]

A. Kotikian, R. L. Truby, J. W. Boley, T. J. White, J. A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1.

[139]

M. del Pozo Puig, J. A. H. P. Sol, A. P. H. J. Schenning, M. G. Debije, Adv. Mater. 2021, 2104390.

[140]

S. J. D. Lugger, L. Ceamanos, D. J. Mulder, C. Sánchez-Somolinos, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Adv. Mater. Technol. 2023, 8, 2201472.

[141]

L. Ceamanos, Z. Kahveci, M. Lopez-Valdeolivas, D. Liu, D. J. Broer, C. Sanchez-Somolinos, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 44195.

[142]

M. E. Prévôt, H. Andro, S. L. M. Alexander, S. Ustunel, C. Zhu, Z. Nikolov, S. T. Rafferty, M. T. Brannum, B. Kinsel, L. T. J. Korley, E. J. Freeman, J. A. McDonough, R. J. Clements, E. Hegmann, Soft Matter 2018, 14, 354.