Recent advances in photo- or electro-chromic smart windows and their thermal regulation

Abstract

Windows are considered to be a major contributor to energy consumption in buildings. Smart windows, as a replacement for traditional windows, can reversibly regulate the transmittance of sunlight, enabling indoor thermal regulation and promising to reduce building energy consumption, thus attracting increasing attention. Especially, the smart windows based on photochromic (PC) or electrochromic (EC) materials have been widely researched due to zero energy input and potential for seasonal adaptability of PC smart windows, as well as the unique active adjustment mode of EC smart windows. These smart windows hold promising application prospects in the field of thermal regulation of future low energy-consumption buildings. However, issues such as the difficulty in scaling up EC smart windows, the slow response time of PC smart windows, and the poor cycling stability and durability common to both EC and PC smart windows limit their development in the field of building thermal regulation. Focusing on the important progresses and challenges of these smart windows based on PC or EC materials, we systematically review the typical researches reported in recent years. This review covers the evaluation parameters of thermal regulation performance, innovative mechanisms, optical regulation optimization methods, and developing status of the smart windows based on PC or EC materials. Moreover, we also discuss the existing issues with the current smart windows and propose targeted improving suggestions. Hopefully, this review can promote the further development of the smart thermal regulation technologies with PC or EC windows.

Keywords

electrochromic materials / photochromic materials / smart windows / thermal regulation

References

[1] United Nations. Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction 2021, Vol. 59, United Nations Environ Program 2021, https://globalabc.org/resources/publications/2021-global-status-report-buildings-and-construction

[2] S. Wang, Y. Zhou, T. Jiang, R. Yang, G. Tan, Y. Long, Nano Energy 2021, 89, 106440.

[3] N. DeForest, A. Shehabi, J. O’Donnell, G. Garcia, J. Greenblatt, E. S. Lee, S. Selkowitz, D. J. Milliron, Build. Environ. 2015, 89, 107.

[4] Y. Ke, J. Chen, G. Lin, S. Wang, Y. Zhou, J. Yin, P. S. Lee, Y. Long, Adv. Energy Mater. 2019, 9, 1902066.

[5] N. Heidari Matin, A. Eydgahi, P. Matin, Buildings 2022, 12, 861.

[6] Y. Zhou, F. Fan, Y. Liu, S. Zhao, Q. Xu, S. Wang, D. Luo, Y. Long, Nano Energy 2021, 90, 106613.

[7] Y. Wang, E. L. Runnerstrom, D. J. Milliron, Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 2016, 7, 283.

[8] Y. Ke, C. Zhou, Y. Zhou, S. Wang, S. H. Chan, Y. Long, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018, 28, 1800113.

[9] Y. Zhou, S. Wang, J. Peng, Y. Tan, C. Li, F. Y. C. Boey, Y. Long, Joule 2020, 4, 2458.

[10] D. Wang, G. Chen, J. Fu, J. Mater. Chem. A 2024, 12, 12960.

[11] S. Nundy, A. Mesloub, B. M. Alsolami, A. Ghosh, J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 301, 126854.

[12] Y. Zhai, J. Li, S. Shen, Z. Zhu, S. Mao, X. Xiao, C. Zhu, J. Tang, X. Lu, J. Chen, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2109848.

[13] J. Wang, Z. Wang, M. Zhang, X. Huo, M. Guo, Adv. Opt. Mater. 2024, 12, 2302344.

[14] W. Meng, J. Wang, L. Jiang, Responsive Mater. 2024, 2, e20240001.

[15] Y. Badour, S. Danto, S. Albakour, S. Mornet, N. Penin, L. Hirsch, M. Gaudon, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2023, 255, 112291.

[16] M. N. Mustafa, M. A. A. Mohd Abdah, A. Numan, A. Moreno-Rangel, A. Radwan, M. Khalid, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2023, 181, 113355.

[17] Y. Tian, W. Liu, J. Hu, Z. Li, X. Xin, G. Fu, Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 500, 156961.

[18] T. He, J. Yao, J. Mater. Chem. 2007, 17, 4547.

[19] A. B. A. Kayani, S. Kuriakose, M. Monshipouri, F. A. Khalid, S. Walia, S. Sriram, M. Bhaskaran, Small 2021, 17, 2100621.

[20] X. Huang, T. Li, J. Mater. Chem. C 2020, 8, 821.

[21] Z. Du, J. Liu, H. Gai, L. Sheng, S. X.-A. Zhang, J. Mater. Chem. C 2020, 8, 11675.

[22] Z. Du, T. Zhang, H. Gai, L. Sheng, Y. Guan, X. Wang, T. Qin, M. Li, S. Wang, Y. Zhang, H. Nie, S. X. Zhang, Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2103309.

[23] R. Pardo, M. Zayat, D. Levy, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 672.

[24] M.-S. Wang, G. Xu, Z.-J. Zhang, G.-C. Guo, Chem. Commun. 2010, 46, 361.

[25] J. Keyvan Rad, Z. Balzade, A. R. Mahdavian, J. Photochem. Photobiol. C Photochem. Rev. 2022, 51, 100487.

[26] X. Li, H. Wang, J. Chen, Y. Tian, C. Xiang, W. Liu, Z. Zhou, J. Cui, X. Chen, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2303765.

[27] G. Zampini, F. Ortica, A. Cannavale, L. Latterini, Dyes Pigments 2023, 210, 111018.

[28] G. Berkovic, V. Krongauz, V. Weiss, Chem. Rev. 2000, 100, 1741.

[29] L. Li, Y. Hua, Y. Guo, G.-S. Zhang, X.-N. Li, H. Zhang, Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2018, 2018, 3757.

[30] Z.-H. Li, L.-P. Xue, Y.-J. Mu, B.-T. Zhao, CrystEngComm 2021, 23, 1019.

[31] Y. Yao, D. Sang, L. Zou, Q. Wang, C. Liu, Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2136.

[32] S. Wang, W. Fan, Z. Liu, A. Yu, X. Jiang, J. Mater. Chem. C 2018, 6, 191.

[33] L. Li, Y.-T. Yu, Y. Hua, X.-N. Li, H. Zhang, Inorg. Chem. Front. 2023, 10, 1965.

[34] R.-G. Lin, G. Xu, M.-S. Wang, G. Lu, P.-X. Li, G.-C. Guo, Inorg. Chem. 2013, 52, 1199.

[35] Y. Xiao, X. Zhang, D. Yan, J. Deng, M. Chen, H. Zhang, W. Sun, J. Zhao, Y. Li, Nano Res. 2024, 17, 3043.

[36] X. Tong, J. Wang, P. Zhang, P. Lei, Y. Gao, R. Ren, S. Zhang, R. Zhu, G. Cai, Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 470, 144130.

[37] H. W. Heuer, R. Wehrmann, S. Kirchmeyer, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2002, 12, 89.

[38] L. Groenendaal, G. Zotti, P.-H. Aubert, S. m. Waybright, J. R. Reynolds, Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 855.

[39] P. M. Beaujuge, S. Ellinger, J. R. Reynolds, Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 795.

[40] H. Shin, S. Seo, C. Park, J. Na, M. Han, E. Kim, Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 117.

[41] M. Li, D. Liu, H. Cheng, L. Peng, M. Zu, Sci. Adv. 2020, 6, eaba3494.

[42] S. M. Islam, T. S. Hernandez, M. D. McGehee, C. Barile, Nat. Energy 2019, 4, 223.

[43] J. Fortunato, B. Z. Zydlewski, M. Lei, N. P. Holzapfel, M. Chagnot, J. B. Mitchell, H.-C. Lu, D. Jiang, D. J. Milliron, V. Augustyn, ACS Photonics 2023, 10, 3409.

[44] K. Tang, Y. Zhang, Y. Shi, J. Cui, X. Shu, Y. Wang, Y. Qin, J. Liu, H. H. Tan, Y. Wu, Appl. Surf. Sci. 2019, 498, 143796.

[45] S. Zhang, X. Han, X. Liu, Z. Huang, P. Wang, S. Sheng, G. Wu, J. He, J. Guo, X. Zheng, H. Li, J. Liu, X. Hong, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2410355.

[46] Q. Hao, Z.-J. Li, C. Lu, B. Sun, Y.-W. Zhong, L.-J. Wan, D. Wang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 19831.

[47] M. T. Strand, T. S. Hernandez, M. G. Danner, A. L. Yeang, N. Jarvey, C. J. Barile, M. D. McGehee, Nat. Energy 2021, 6, 546.

[48] S.-Z. Sheng, J.-L. Wang, B. Zhao, Z. He, X.-F. Feng, Q.-G. Shang, C. Chen, G. Pei, J. Zhou, J.-W. Liu, S.-H. Yu, Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 3231.

[49] P. Lei, J. Wang, Y. Gao, C. Hu, S. Zhang, X. Tong, Z. Wang, Y. Gao, G. Cai, Nano-Micro Lett. 2023, 15, 34.

[50] W. Wei, Z. Li, Z. Guo, Y. Li, F. Hou, W. Guo, A. Wei, Appl. Surf. Sci. 2022, 571, 151277.

[51] S. Zhang, S. Cao, T. Zhang, A. Fisher, J. Y. Lee, Energy Environ. Sci. 2018, 11, 2884.

[52] T. S. Hernandez, C. J. Barile, M. T. Strand, T. E. Dayrit, D. J. Slotcavage, M. D. McGehee, ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 104.

[53] S. K. Deb, Appl. Opt. 1969, 8, 192.

[54] A. V. Shchegolkov, S.-H. Jang, A. V. Shchegolkov, Y. V. Rodionov, A. O. Sukhova, M. S. Lipkin, Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2376.

[55] C. G. Granqvist, Thin Solid Films 2014, 564, 1.

[56] Q. Meng, S. Cao, J. Guo, Q. Wang, K. Wang, T. Yang, R. Zeng, J. Zhao, B. Zou, J. Energy Chem. 2023, 77, 137.

[57] H.-C. Lu, N. Katyal, G. Henkelman, D. J. Milliron, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2021, 143, 15745.

[58] S. Cao, S. Zhang, T. Zhang, Q. Yao, J. Y. Lee, Joule 2019, 3, 1152.

[59] S. Zhang, S. Cao, T. Zhang, J. Y. Lee, Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2004686.

[60] A. Llordés, G. Garcia, J. Gazquez, D. J. Milliron, Nature 2013, 500, 323.

[61] A. Agrawal, S. H. Cho, O. Zandi, S. Ghosh, R. W. Johns, D. J. Milliron, Chem. Rev. 2018, 118, 3121.

[62] Z. Shao, A. Huang, C. Cao, X. Ji, W. Hu, H. Luo, J. Bell, P. Jin, R. Yang, X. Cao, Nat. Sustain. 2024, 7, 796.

[63] D. Ma, T. Yang, X. Feng, P. Wang, J. Huang, J. Wang, H. Li, Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2307223.

[64] M. Chen, J. Deng, H. Zhang, X. Zhang, D. Yan, G. Yao, L. Hu, S. Sun, J. Zhao, Y. Li, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 35, 2413659.

[65] K. Sheng, B. Xue, J. Zheng, C. Xu, Adv. Opt. Mater. 2021, 9, 2002149.

[66] D. He, C. Su, C. Zhao, G. Yan, Z. Zhao, W. Mai, Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 438, 135469.

[67] A. L. Eh, J. Chen, S. H. Yu, G. Thangavel, X. Zhou, G. Cai, S. Li, D. H. C. Chua, P. S. Lee, Adv. Sci. 2020, 7, 1903198.

[68] Y. Zhang, B. Xu, B. Huang, T. He, F. Meng, W. Tian, Y. Zhu, J. Wu, H. Wang, H. Li, J. Chen, ACS Energy Lett. 2024, 9, 4162.

[69] Y. Xie, R. Huang, M. Li, N. Cao, X. Jia, C. Wang, D. Chao, Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2406232.

[70] J. Wang, Z. Wang, M. Zhang, X. Huo, M. Guo, Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 484, 149628.

[71] C. Park, J. M. Kim, Y. Kim, S. Bae, M. Do, S. Im, S. Yoo, J. H. Kim, ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2021, 3, 4781.

[72] Q. Wang, S. Cao, Q. Meng, K. Wang, T. Yang, J. Zhao, B. Zou, Mater. Horiz. 2023, 10, 960.

[73] K. Feng, Y. Ma, L. Zhang, Y. Liu, Y. Liu, Z. Xing, X. Pei, Y. Wu, F. Zhou, Small 2024, 21, 2407033.

[74] Z. Shao, A. Huang, C. Ming, J. Bell, P. Yu, Y.-Y. Sun, L. Jin, L. Ma, H. Luo, P. Jin, X. Cao, Nat. Electron. 2022, 5, 45.

[75] Q. Hao, Z.-J. Li, B. Bai, X. Zhang, Y.-W. Zhong, L.-J. Wan, D. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2021, 60, 12498.

[76] D. Bessinger, K. Muggli, M. Beetz, F. Auras, T. Bein, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2021, 143, 7351.

[77] J. Jiang, L. Qin, J. Halim, P. O. A. Persson, L. Hou, J. Rosen, Nano Res. 2022, 15, 3587.

[78] B. Cong, Y. Wu, M. Zhou, X. Zhao, D. Chao, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2024, 46, 2400741.

[79] Y. Huang, B. Wang, P. Lyu, S. Zhao, X. Wu, S. Zhang, R. Li, Q. Jiang, F. Wang, Y. Zhao, R. Zhang, Nano Res. 2023, 16, 12165.

[80] C. Gu, G. Yang, W. Wang, A. Shi, W. Fang, L. Qian, X. Hu, T. Zhang, C. Xiang, Y.-M. Zhang, Nano-Micro Lett. 2024, 17, 67.

[81] X. Tao, D. Liu, J. Yu, H. Cheng, Adv. Opt. Mater. 2021, 9, 2001847.

[82] A. Tsuboi, K. Nakamura, N. Kobayashi, Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 3197.

[83] A. Tsuboi, K. Nakamura, N. Kobayashi, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2016, 145, 16.

[84] A. Tsuboi, K. Nakamura, N. Kobayashi, Chem. Mater. 2014, 26, 6477.

[85] T. S. Hernandez, M. Alshurafa, M. T. Strand, A. L. Yeang, M. G. Danner, C. J. Barile, M. D. McGehee, Joule 2020, 4, 1501.

[86] S. M. Islam, A. A. Palma, R. P. Gautam, C. J. Barile, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 44874.

[87] S. Kimura, K. Nakamura, N. Kobayashi, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2020, 205, 110247.

[88] S. M. Islam, C. J. Barile, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 40043.

[89] N. C. Bhoumik, D. C. Madu, C. W. Moon, L. S. Arvisu, M. D. McGehee, C. J. Barile, Joule 2024, 8, 1036.

[90] S. M. Islam, C. J. Barile, Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2100417.

[91] D. C. Madu, M. V. Lilo, A. A. Thompson, H. Pan, M. D. McGehee, C. J. Barile, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 47810.

[92] N. C. Bhoumik, S. M. Thompson, C. J. Barile, Nano Energy 2024, 126, 109710.

[93] S. Li, Y. Chen, Z. Wang, M. Wang, X. Guo, X. Tang, X. Wang, W. Lai, M. Tong, C. Wang, S. Cong, F. Geng, Y. Chen, Z. Zhao, Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 724.

[94] X. Li, K. Perera, J. He, A. Gumyusenge, J. Mei, J. Mater. Chem. C 2019, 7, 12761.

[95] A. L. Dyer, E. J. Thompson, J. R. Reynolds, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2011, 3, 1787.

[96] G. Yang, J. Fan, K. Zhang, C. Gu, J. Li, K. Kang, C. Xiang, L. Qian, T. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2314983.

[97] Y. Xie, M. Li, R. Huang, N. Cao, D. Chao, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 67, 103321.

[98] Y. Xie, Y. Zhang, M. Li, R. Huang, X. Liu, D. Chao, Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 470, 144099.

[99] Z. Wang, X. Jia, P. Zhang, Y. Liu, H. Qi, P. Zhang, U. Kaiser, S. Reineke, R. Dong, X. Feng, Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2106073.

[100] P. Shi, J. Wang, Z. Guo, Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 451, 139082.

[101] F. Yu, W. Liu, S.-W. Ke, M. Kurmoo, J.-L. Zuo, Q. Zhang, Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 5534.

[102] S. Feng, J. Wang, Z. Tong, H.-Y. Qu, Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 442, 136158.

[103] X. Wang, Z. Liu, H. Ma, Y. Liu, Q. Sui, J. Feng, G. Cai, Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2407297.

[104] J. Feng, T.-F. Liu, R. Cao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 22392.

[105] M. Wang, X. Xing, I. F. Perepichka, Y. Shi, D. Zhou, P. Wu, H. Meng, Adv. Energy Mater. 2019, 9, 1900433.

[106] L. Wang, X. Jiao, D. Chen, T. Wang, Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2104121.

[107] K. Khaled, U. Berardi, Energy Build. 2023, 300, 113664.

[108] M. Chen, X. Zhang, W. Sun, Y. Xiao, H. Zhang, J. Deng, Z. Li, D. Yan, J. Zhao, Y. Li, Nano Energy 2024, 123, 109352.

[109] C. W. Kim, E. G. Santoro, A. U. Pawar, D. K. Lee, O. Peña-Rodriguez, U. Pal, Y. S. Kang, Adv. Opt. Mater. 2023, 11, 2202171.

[110] A. Cannavale, G. Zampini, F. Carlucci, M. Pugliese, F. Martellotta, U. Ayr, V. Maiorano, F. Ortica, F. Fiorito, L. Latterini, Sol. Energy 2022, 242, 424.

[111] R. Mi, C. Chen, T. Keplinger, Y. Pei, S. He, D. Liu, J. Li, J. Dai, E. Hitz, B. Yang, I. Burgert, L. Hu, Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 3836.

[112] Y. Li, Q. Fu, S. Yu, M. Yan, L. Berglund, Biomacromolecules 2016, 17, 1358.

[113] A. Samanta, H. Chen, P. Samanta, S. Popov, I. Sychugov, L. A. Berglund, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 3270.

[114] T. Zhang, M. Zheng, H. Li, T. Yuan, H. Peng, K. Wang, X. Zhan, Y. Liu, K. Wang, X. Liu, Y. Li, Ind. Crops Prod. 2023, 205, 117532.

[115] Q. Pang, L. Bian, J. Xu, Y. Jia, C. Wang, Y. Zhang, Q. Ju, Q. Wu, Z. Fang, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 10506.

[116] H. Liu, M. Jiang, S. Geng, X. Liu, Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 490, 151545.

[117] J. Tian, J. Xu, H. Peng, X. Du, H. Wang, Z. Du, X. Cheng, Prog. Org. Coat. 2021, 160, 106531.

[118] F. Sun, J. Cai, H. Wu, H. Zhang, Y. Chen, C. Jiang, F. Su, Y. Tian, Y. J. Liu, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2023, 260, 112496.

[119] T. T. Dao, S. Park, S. Sarwar, H. V. Tran, S. I. Lee, H. S. Park, S. H. Song, H. D. Nguyen, K.-K. Lee, C.-H. Han, S. Hong, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2021, 231, 111316.

[120] S. Sarwar, S. Park, T. T. Dao, S. Hong, C.-H. Han, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2021, 224, 110990.

[121] S. Y. Chun, S. Park, S. I. Lee, H. D. Nguyen, K.-K. Lee, S. Hong, C.-H. Han, M. Cho, H.-K. Choi, K. Kwak, Nano Energy 2021, 82, 105721.

[122] W. Meng, A. J. J. Kragt, Y. Gao, E. Brembilla, X. Hu, J. S. van der Burgt, A. P. H. J. Schenning, T. Klein, G. Zhou, E. R. van den Ham, L. Tan, L. Li, J. Wang, L. Jiang, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2304910.

[123] W. Meng, A. J. J. Kragt, X. Hu, J. S. van der Burgt, A. P. H. J. Schenning, Y. Yue, G. Zhou, L. Li, P. Wei, W. Zhao, Y. Li, J. Wang, L. Jiang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2402494.

[124] Y. Zhu, Y. Yao, Z. Chen, Z. Zhang, P. Zhang, Z. Cheng, Y. Gao, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2022, 239, 111664.

[125] J. Tang, H. Gu, Y. Zhao, M. Tan, W. Zhao, R. Ma, S. Zhang, D. Hu, Chem. Commun. 2023, 59, 6060.

[126] T. Ma, B. Li, S. Tian, J. Qian, L. Zhou, Q. Liu, B. Liu, X. Zhao, G. Sankar, Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 468, 143587.

[127] T. Ma, B. Li, Y. Zhu, S. Wu, X. Zhao, X. Chu, S. Tian, J. Mater. Chem. C 2024, 12, 10218.

[128] J. Tao, S. Tian, B. Li, T. Ma, L. Zhou, X. Zhao, Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 482, 149079.

[129] N. Chen, W.-X. Yong, T.-D. Xiong, G.-D. Fu, J. Mater. Chem. C 2023, 11, 9570.

[130] X.-N. Li, H. Xu, L. Huang, Y. Shen, M.-J. Li, H. Zhang, Dyes Pigments 2023, 213, 111151.

[131] H. Yang, H. Zhao, Z. Song, Z. Yang, Z. Song, J. Qiu, A. Huang, Z. Yang, Ceram. Int. 2023, 49, 21645.

[132] T. Xiong, W. Yong, N. Chen, G. Fu, J. Photochem. Photobiol. Chem. 2024, 456, 115853.

[133] M. E. El-Hefnawy, A. I. Ismail, S. Alhayyani, S. T. Al-Goul, M. M. Zayed, M. Abou Taleb, Polymers 2022, 15, 119.

[134] Y. Jiang, Y. Wang, D. Kong, Z. Chen, Z. Yang, N. Cao, H. Chi, S. Zhu, Q. Zhang, J. Zhu, B. Zhu, Natl. Sci. Rev. 2025, 12, nwae408.

[135] Y. Zhao, H. Ji, M. Lu, J. Tao, Y. Ou, Y. Wang, Y. Chen, Y. Huang, J. Wang, Y. Mao, Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 3865.

[136] D. Cao, C. Xu, W. Lu, C. Qin, S. Cheng, Sol. RRL 2018, 2, 1700219.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Responsive Materials published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Southeast University.