Interplay Among Reward Processing, Schizotypal Traits, and Psychosocial Stress in a Large Chinese Young Adult Sample: A Cross-Sectional Network Analysis

Abstract

Reward processing comprises reward sensitivity, motivation, and pleasure experience, but how these components jointly relate to schizotypal traits and psychosocial stress in young adult samples remains unclear. Using network analysis in a large Chinese young adult sample (N = 6814), we examined multivariate associations among reward sensitivity (BAS), schizotypal traits (MSS), reward motivation (MAP-SR), pleasure experience (TEPS), and psychosocial stress (ERI). The results indicated that BAS-Fun seeking showed the highest strength centrality and expected influence. MSS-Disorganized schizotypal traits served as a bridge node between reward sensitivity and reward motivation and pleasure experience. Subsequent mediation analysis also supported these findings. Network comparison tests indicated no difference in global strength between the high- and low-psychosocial-stress groups, but a significant difference in overall network structure. These findings highlight impulsive Fun seeking and disorganized schizotypal traits as potentially informative targets for mechanistic and intervention-oriented research across the psychosis continuum in young adult cohorts.

Keywords

effort-reward imbalance / network analysis / pleasure experience / reward motivation / reward sensitivity / schizotypal traits

References

[1] Baik, J.-H. 2020. “Stress and the Dopaminergic Reward System.” Experimental & Molecular Medicine 52, no. 12: 1879–1890. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4.

[2] Barch, D. M., M. T. Treadway, and N. Schoen. 2014. “Effort, Anhedonia, and Function in Schizophrenia: Reduced Effort Allocation Predicts Amotivation and Functional Impairment.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 123, no. 2: 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036299.

[3] Baumeister, R. F., E. Bratslavsky, M. Muraven, and D. M. Tice. 1998. “Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 5: 1252–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252.

[4] Baumeister, R. F., K. D. Vohs, and D. M. Tice. 2007. “The Strength Model of Self-Control.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 16, no. 6: 351–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x.

[5] Berghorst, L. H., R. Bogdan, M. J. Frank, and D. A. Pizzagalli. 2013. “Acute Stress Selectively Reduces Reward Sensitivity.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7: 133. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00133.

[6] Berridge, K. C., and T. E. Robinson. 1998. “What Is the Role of Dopamine in Reward: Hedonic Impact, Reward Learning, or Incentive Salience?” Brain Research Reviews 28, no. 3: 309–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0173(98)00019-8.

[7] Borsboom, D., M. K. Deserno, M. Rhemtulla, et al. 2021. “Network Analysis of Multivariate Data in Psychological Science.” Nature Reviews Methods Primers 1: 58. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-021-00055-w.

[8] Boyle, C. C., J. E. Bower, N. I. Eisenberger, and M. R. Irwin. 2023. “Stress to Inflammation and Anhedonia: Mechanistic Insights From Preclinical and Clinical Models.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 152: 105307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105307.

[9] Briganti, G., M. Scutari, S. Epskamp, et al. 2024. “Network Analysis: An Overview for Mental Health Research.” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 33, no. 4: e2034. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.2034.

[10] Carruzzo, F., A. O. Giarratana, L. del Puppo, S. Kaiser, P. N. Tobler, and M. Kaliuzhna. 2023. “Neural Bases of Reward Anticipation in Healthy Individuals With Low, Mid, and High Levels of Schizotypy.” Scientific Reports 13: 9953. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37103-2.

[11] Carver, C. S., and T. L. White. 1994. “Behavioral Inhibition, Behavioral Activation, and Affective Responses to Impending Reward and Punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 2: 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319.

[12] Casey, B. J., R. M. Jones, and T. A. Hare. 2008. “The Adolescent Brain.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1124: 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1440.010.

[13] Chan, R. C. K., Y. F. Shi, M. K. Lai, Y. N. Wang, Y. Wang, and A. M. Kring. 2012. “The Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale (TEPS): Exploration and Confirmation of Factor Structure in a Healthy Chinese Sample.” PLoS One 7, no. 4: e35352. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035352.

[14] Christ, S. L., D. J. Lee, B. L. Lam, and D. D. Zheng. 2014. “Structural Equation Modeling: A Framework for Ocular and Other Medical Sciences Research.” Ophthalmic Epidemiology 21, no. 1: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3109/09286586.2013.867508.

[15] Chu, R. S. T., C. C. H. Y. Tong, C. S. M. Wong, et al. 2023. “Effort-Based Decision Making in Schizotypy and Its Relationship With Amotivation and Psychosocial Functioning.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 14: 1123046. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1123046.

[16] Chun, C. A., N. Barrantes-Vidal, and T. R. Kwapil. 2019. “Aberrant Salience Across Levels of Processing in Positive and Negative Schizotypy.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 2073. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02073.

[17] DeRosse, P., and K. H. Karlsgodt. 2015. “Examining the Psychosis Continuum.” Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports 2, no. 2: 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40473-015-0040-7.

[18] Diamond, A. 2013. “Executive Functions.” Annual Review of Psychology 64: 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.

[19] Dodell-Feder, D., A. Saxena, L. Rutter, and L. Germine. 2019. “The Network Structure of Schizotypal Personality Traits in a Population-Based Sample.” Schizophrenia Research 208: 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.01.046.

[20] Duckworth, A. L., and J. J. Gross. 2014. “Self-Control and Grit: Related but Separable Determinants of Success.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 23, no. 5: 319–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414541462.

[21] Epskamp, S., D. Borsboom, and E. I. Fried. 2018. “Estimating Psychological Networks and Their Accuracy: A Tutorial Paper.” Behavior Research Methods 50, no. 1: 195–212. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0862-1.

[22] Epskamp, S., A. O. J. Cramer, L. J. Waldorp, V. D. Schmittmann, and D. Borsboom. 2012. “Qgraph: Network Visualizations of Relationships in Psychometric Data.” Journal of Statistical Software 48, no. 4: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i04.

[23] Epskamp, S., and E. I. Fried. 2018. “A Tutorial on Regularized Partial Correlation Networks.” Psychological Methods 23, no. 4: 617–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000167.

[24] Foygel, R., and M. Drton. 2010. “ Extended Bayesian Information Criteria for Gaussian Graphical Models.” In A. Culotta Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, edited by J. D. Lafferty, C. K. I. Williams, J. Shawe-Taylor, and R. S. Zemel, vol. 23, 604–612. Curran Associates Inc.

[25] Friedman, J., T. Hastie, and R. Tibshirani. 2008. “Sparse Inverse Covariance Estimation With the Graphical Lasso.” Biostatistics 9, no. 3: 432–441. https://doi.org/10.1093/biostatistics/kxm045.

[26] Fruchterman, T. M. J., and E. M. Reingold. 1991. “Graph Drawing by Force-Directed Placement.” Software: Practice and Experience 21, no. 11: 1129–1164. https://doi.org/10.1002/spe.4380211102.

[27] Galván, A. 2010. “Adolescent Development of the Reward System.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 4: 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.006.2010.

[28] Gard, D. E., M. G. Gard, A. M. Kring, and O. P. John. 2006. “Anticipatory and Consummatory Components of the Experience of Pleasure: A Scale Development Study.” Journal of Research in Personality 40, no. 6: 1086–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.001.

[29] Gard, D. E., A. M. Kring, M. G. Gard, W. P. Horan, and M. F. Green. 2007. “Anhedonia in Schizophrenia: Distinctions Between Anticipatory and Consummatory Pleasure.” Schizophrenia Research 93, no. 1–3: 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.03.008.

[30] Gunnar, M., and K. Quevedo. 2007. “The Neurobiology of Stress and Development.” Annual Review of Psychology 58: 145–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605.

[31] Harju-Seppänen, J., H. Irizar, E. Bramon, S.-J. Blakemore, L. Mason, and V. Bell. 2022. “Reward Processing in Children With Psychotic-Like Experiences.” Schizophrenia Bulletin Open 3, no. 1: sgab054. https://doi.org/10.1093/schizbullopen/sgab054.

[32] Haslbeck, J. M. B., and L. J. Waldorp. 2018. “How Well Do Network Models Predict Observations? On the Importance of Predictability in Network Models.” Behavior Research Methods 50, no. 2: 853–861. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0910-x.

[33] Hernández, L. M., K. C. Kemp, N. Barrantes-Vidal, and T. R. Kwapil. 2023. “Disorganized Schizotypy and Neuroticism in Daily Life: Examining Their Overlap and Differentiation.” Journal of Research in Personality 106: 104402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104402.

[34] Hofmann, W., B. J. Schmeichel, and A. D. Baddeley. 2012. “Executive Functions and Self-Regulation.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16, no. 3: 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.01.006.

[35] Holm, S. 1979. “A Simple Sequentially Rejective Multiple Test Procedure.” Scandinavian Journal of Statistics 6, no. 2: 65–70.

[36] Huang, Y.-H., H.-X. Hu, L.-L. Wang, et al. 2023. “Relationships Between Childhood Trauma and Dimensional Schizotypy: A Network Analysis and Replication.” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 85: 103598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103598.

[37] IBM Corp. 2013. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 22.0) [Computer Software], Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

[38] Jones, P. J., R. Ma, and R. J. McNally. 2021. “Bridge Centrality: A Network Approach to Understanding Comorbidity.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 56, no. 2: 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2019.1614898.

[39] Karamaouna, P., C. Zouraraki, E. Economou, K. Kafetsios, P. Bitsios, and S. G. Giakoumaki. 2024. “Cold Executive Function Processes and Their Hot Analogs in Schizotypy.” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 30, no. 3: 285–294. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617723000590.

[40] Kelleher, I., D. Connor, M. C. Clarke, N. Devlin, M. Harley, and M. Cannon. 2012. “Prevalence of Psychotic Symptoms in Childhood and Adolescence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Population-Based Studies.” Psychological Medicine 42, no. 9: 1857–1863. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291711002960.

[41] Kemp, K. C., S. H. Sperry, L. Hernández, N. Barrantes-Vidal, and T. R. Kwapil. 2025. “Association of Positive, Negative, and Disorganized Schizotypy With the Temporal Dynamics of Schizotypic Experiences in Daily Life.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 51, no. 3: 765–779. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbae112.

[42] Kring, A. M., and D. M. Barch. 2014. “The Motivation and Pleasure Dimension of Negative Symptoms: Neural Substrates and Behavioral Outputs.” European Neuropsychopharmacology 24, no. 5: 725–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.06.007.

[43] Kwapil, T. R. 1998. “Social Anhedonia as a Predictor of the Development of Schizophrenia-Spectrum Disorders.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107, no. 4: 558–565. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.107.4.558.

[44] Kwapil, T. R., and N. Barrantes-Vidal. 2015. “Schizotypy: Looking Back and Moving Forward.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 41, no. Suppl 2: S366–S373. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu186.

[45] Kwapil, T. R., G. M. Gross, P. J. Silvia, M. L. Raulin, and N. Barrantes-Vidal. 2018. “Development and Psychometric Properties of the Multidimensional Schizotypy Scale: A New Measure for Assessing Positive, Negative, and Disorganized Schizotypy.” Schizophrenia Research 193: 209–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.001.

[46] Leone, L., and P. M. Russo. 2009. “Components of the Behavioral Activation System and Functional Impulsivity: A Test of Discriminant Hypotheses.” Journal of Research in Personality 43, no. 6: 1101–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.08.004.

[47] Li, J., L. Shang, T. Wang, and J. Siegrist. 2010. “Measuring Effort-Reward Imbalance in School Settings: A Novel Approach and Its Association With Self-Rated Health.” Journal of Epidemiology 20, no. 2: 111–118. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.je20090057.

[48] Li, Y.-Z., Y. Zhang, Y. Jiang, et al. 2008. “The Chinese Version of the BIS/BAS Scale: Reliability and Validity.” Chinese Mental Health Journal 22, no. 8: 613–616.

[49] Lighthall, N. R., M. A. Gorlick, A. Schoeke, M. J. Frank, and M. Mather. 2013. “Stress Modulates Reinforcement Learning in Younger and Older Adults.” Psychology and Aging 28, no. 1: 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029823.

[50] Liu, H., J. Lafferty, and L. Wasserman. 2009. “The Nonparanormal: Semiparametric Estimation of High Dimensional Undirected Graphs.” Journal of Machine Learning Research 10: 2295–2328.

[51] Llerena, K., S. G. Park, J. M. McCarthy, S. M. Couture, M. E. Bennett, and J. J. Blanchard. 2013. “The Motivation and Pleasure Scale–Self-Report (MAP-SR): Reliability and Validity of a Self-Report Measure of Negative Symptoms.” Comprehensive Psychiatry 54, no. 5: 568–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.12.001.

[52] Lupien, S. J., B. S. McEwen, M. R. Gunnar, and C. Heim. 2009. “Effects of Stress Throughout the Lifespan on the Brain, Behaviour and Cognition.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, no. 6: 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2639.

[53] Pan, Y.-M., H.-X. Hu, L.-L. Wang, et al. 2023. “The Prediction of Effort–Reward Imbalance for Reward Motivation.” PsyCh Journal 12, no. 5: 746–748. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.652.

[54] Papanastasiou, E., E. Mouchlianitis, D. W. Joyce, et al. 2018. “Examination of the Neural Basis of Psychoticlike Experiences in Adolescence During Reward Processing.” JAMA Psychiatry 75, no. 10: 1043–1051. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1973.

[55] Premkumar, P., P. Alahakoon, M. Smith, V. Kumari, D. Babu, and J. Baker. 2021. “Mild-To-Moderate Schizotypal Traits Relate to Physiological Arousal From Social Stress.” Stress 24, no. 3: 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2020.1797674.

[56] Pruessner, M., A. E. Cullen, M. Aas, and E. F. Walker. 2017. “The Neural Diathesis Stress Model of Schizophrenia Revisited: An Update on Recent Findings Considering Illness Stage and Neurobiological and Methodological Complexities.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 73: 191–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.013.

[57] R Core Team. 2023. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (Version 4.3.2) [Computer Software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/10.32614/r.manuals.

[58] Romeo, R. D. 2013. “The Teenage Brain: The Stress Response and the Adolescent Brain.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 22, no. 2: 140–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413475445.

[59] Rónai, L., F. Hann, S. Kéri, and B. Polner. 2026. “Thoughts Falling Apart: Disorganized Schizotypy Specifically Predicts Both Psychotic- and Stress-Reactivity in Daily Life.” Journal of Personality 94, no. 1: 94–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.13019.

[60] Rosseel, Y. 2012. “Lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling.” Journal of Statistical Software 48, no. 2: 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02.

[61] Siegrist, J. 1996. “Adverse Health Effects of High-Effort/Low-Reward Conditions.” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 1, no. 1: 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27.

[62] Siegrist, J., and J. Li. 2016. “Associations of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Components of Work Stress With Health: A Systematic Review of Evidence on the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13, no. 4: 432. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13040432.

[63] Siegrist, J., D. Starke, T. Chandola, et al. 2004. “The Measurement of Effort-Reward Imbalance at Work: European Comparisons.” Social Science & Medicine 58, no. 8: 1483–1499. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00351-4.

[64] Smillie, L. D., C. J. Jackson, and L. I. Dalgleish. 2006. “Conceptual Distinctions Among Carver and White's (1994) BAS Scales: A Reward-Reactivity Versus Trait Impulsivity Perspective.” Personality and Individual Differences 40, no. 5: 1039–1050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.012.

[65] Snippe, E., W. Viechtbauer, N. Geschwind, A. Klippel, P. de Jonge, and M. Wichers. 2017. “The Impact of Treatments for Depression on the Dynamic Network Structure of Mental States: Two Randomized Controlled Trials.” Scientific Reports 7: 46523. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46523.

[66] Solmi, M., J. Radua, M. Olivola, et al. 2022. “Age at Onset of Mental Disorders Worldwide: Large-Scale Meta-Analysis of 192 Epidemiological Studies.” Molecular Psychiatry 27, no. 1: 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7.

[67] Somerville, L. H., and B. J. Casey. 2010. “Developmental Neurobiology of Cognitive Control and Motivational Systems.” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 20, no. 2: 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2010.01.006.

[68] Spear, L. P. 2000. “The Adolescent Brain and Age-Related Behavioral Manifestations.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 24, no. 4: 417–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2.

[69] Staines, L., C. Healy, H. Coughlan, et al. 2022. “Psychotic Experiences in the General Population: A Review; Definition, Risk Factors, Outcomes and Interventions.” Psychological Medicine 52, no. 15: 3297–3308. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291722002550.

[70] Steffens, M., I. Meyhöfer, K. Fassbender, U. Ettinger, and J. Kambeitz. 2018. “Association of Schizotypy With Dimensions of Cognitive Control: A Meta-Analysis.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 44, no. Suppl 2: S512–S524. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sby030.

[71] Steinberg, L. 2010. “A Dual Systems Model of Adolescent Risk-Taking.” Developmental Psychobiology 52, no. 3: 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20445.

[72] Strauss, G. P., J. A. Waltz, and J. M. Gold. 2014. “A Review of Reward Processing and Motivational Impairment in Schizophrenia.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 40, no. Suppl 2: S107–S116. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt197.

[73] Tibshirani, R. 1996. “Regression Shrinkage and Selection via the Lasso.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B: Methodological 58, no. 1: 267–288. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1996.tb02080.x.

[74] Tiego, J., K. Thompson, A. Arnatkeviciute, et al. 2023. “Dissecting Schizotypy and Its Association With Cognition and Polygenic Risk for Schizophrenia in a Nonclinical Sample.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 49, no. 5: 1217–1228. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbac016.

[75] Tsutsumi, A., and N. Kawakami. 2004. “A Review of Empirical Studies on the Model of Effort-Reward Imbalance at Work: Reducing Occupational Stress by Implementing a New Theory.” Social Science & Medicine 59, no. 11: 2335–2359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.03.030.

[76] van Borkulo, C. D., R. van Bork, L. Boschloo, et al. 2023. “Comparing Network Structures on Three Aspects: A Permutation Test.” Psychological Methods 28, no. 6: 1273–1285. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000476.

[77] van Os, J., R. J. Linscott, I. Myin-Germeys, P. Delespaul, and L. Krabbendam. 2009. “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Psychosis Continuum: Evidence for a Psychosis Proneness–Persistence–Impairment Model of Psychotic Disorder.” Psychological Medicine 39, no. 2: 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291708003814.

[78] Visser, K. F., H. C. Chapman, I. Ruiz, I. M. Raugh, and G. P. Strauss. 2020. “A Meta-Analysis of Self-Reported Anticipatory and Consummatory Pleasure in the Schizophrenia-Spectrum.” Journal of Psychiatric Research 121: 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.11.007.

[79] von Elm, E., D. G. Altman, M. Egger, et al. 2007. “The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: Guidelines for Reporting Observational Studies.” PLoS Medicine 4, no. 10: e296. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0040296.

[80] Walker, E. F., and D. Diforio. 1997. “Schizophrenia: A Neural Diathesis-Stress Model.” Psychological Review 104, no. 4: 667–685. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.104.4.667.

[81] Wang, L.-L., S. S. Y. Lui, and R. C. K. Chan. 2024. “Neuropsychology and Neurobiology of Negative Schizotypy: A Selective Review.” Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science 4, no. 4: 100317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsgos.2024.100317.

[82] Wang, L.-L., E. P. Y. Ma, S. S. Y. Lui, E. F. C. Cheung, K. S. Cheng, and R. C. K. Chan. 2020. “Validation and Extension of the Motivation and Pleasure Scale-Self Report (MAP-SR) Across the Schizophrenia Spectrum in the Chinese Context.” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 49: 101971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.101971.

[83] Wang, X., Y. Zhang, J. Huang, et al. 2023. “Revisiting Reward Impairments in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis for Neuroimaging Findings.” Psychological Medicine 53, no. 15: 7189–7202. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291723000703.

[84] Wang, Y., H.-X. Hu, L.-L. Wang, et al. 2021. “Convergent Validity of the Chinese Version of the Multidimensional Schizotypy Scale.” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 61: 102671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102671.

[85] Yan, Y.-J., H.-X. Hu, L.-L. Wang, et al. 2023. “Negative Schizotypal Traits Predict the Reduction of Reward Motivation in Effort–Reward Imbalance.” European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 273, no. 2: 439–445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-022-01419-3.

[86] Yan, Y.-J., J. Huang, S. S. Y. Lui, E. F. C. Cheung, K. H. Madsen, and R. C. K. Chan. 2021. “The Effect of Effort–Reward Imbalance on Brain Structure and Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Individuals With High Levels of Schizotypal Traits.” Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 26, no. 3: 166–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2021.1899906.

[87] Yates, K., U. Lång, E. M. Peters, et al. 2021. “Hallucinations in the General Population Across the Adult Lifespan: Prevalence and Psychopathologic Significance.” British Journal of Psychiatry 219, no. 6: 652–658. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2021.100.

[88] Zhao, T., H. Liu, K. Roeder, J. Lafferty, and L. Wasserman. 2012. “The Huge Package for High-Dimensional Undirected Graph Estimation in R.” Journal of Machine Learning Research 13: 1059–1062.

[89] Zou, Y.-M., H.-X. Yang, R.-T. Zhang, S. S. Y. Lui, E. F. C. Cheung, and R. C. K. Chan. 2020. “Validation of the Chinese Version of the Multidimensional Schizotypy Scale (MSS): Convergent Evidence From Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses.” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 51: 102057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102057.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). PsyCh Journal published by Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.