Advancement and new perspectives of using formulated reactive amine blends for post-combustion carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture technologies

Abstract

Chemical absorption using amine-based solvents have proven to be the most studied, as well as the most reliable and efficient technology for capturing carbon dioxide (CO₂) from exhaust gas streams and synthesis gas in all combustion and industrial processes. The application of single amine-based solvents especially the very reactive monoethanolamine (MEA) is associated with a parasitic energy demand for solvent regeneration. Since regeneration energy accounts for up to three-quarters of the plant operating cost, efforts in its reduction have prompted the idea of using blended amine solvents. This review paper highlights the success achieved in blending amine solvents and the recent and future technologies aimed at increasing the overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient, absorption rate, cyclic capacity and greatly minimizing both degradation and the energy for solvent regeneration. The importance of amine biodegradability (BOD) and low ecotoxicity as well as low amine volatility is also highlighted. Costs and energy penalty indices that influences the capital and operating costs of CO₂ capture process was also highlighted. A new experimental method for simultaneously estimating amine cost, degradation rate, regeneration energy and reclaiming energy is also proposed in this review paper.

Keywords

Post-combustion / Pre-combustion / Oxy-fuel combustion / CO₂ capture / Blended amines / Regeneration energy / Degradation / Amine volatility / Biodegradability / Ecotoxicity / Amine cost / Reclaiming energy

Acknowledgement

The financial supports from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to our CO₂ Capture Research programs at the University of Regina, are gratefully acknowledged. In addition, this publication was made possible, in parts, by NPRP grant# 7 -1154 -2 -433 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the Authors. The Authors also gratefully thank Clean Energy Technologies Research Institute (CETRI) of University of Regina -CANADA, Gas Processing Centre of Qatar University -QATAR, as well as the Petroleum and Petrochemical College of Chulalongkorn University -THAILAND, for their research facility supports.

References

[1] International Energy Agency (IEA), CO₂ Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights. 2015. Available at: http://www. iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/CO₂-missionsFromFuelCombustionHighlights2015.pdf.

[2] P. Tontiwachwuthikul, R. Idem, D. Gelowitz, et al., Recent progress and new development of post-combustion carbon-capture technology using reactive solvents, Carbon Manag. 2 (2011) 261-263.

[3] D. Bayless, Combustion, in: I. Urieli (Ed.), Engineering Thermodynamics -a Graphical Approach, 2015. Last updated [22nd June, 2015]. Available at: http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Applied/Chapt.7_11/Chapter11.html.

[4] E.S. Rubin, CO₂ Capture Transp. Elem. 4 (5) (2008) 311-317.

[5] National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), DOE/NETL Advanced Carbon Dioxide Capture R&D Program: Technology Update, third ed., U.S. Department of Energy, U.S.A, 2013.

[6] M. Halmann, M. Steinberg, Greenhouse Gas Carbon Dioxide Mitigation:Science and Technology, CRC Press, London, 1998.

[7] C. Alie, L. Backham, E. Croiset, P.L. Douglas, Simulation of CO₂ capture using MEA scrubbing: a flow sheet decomposition method, Energy Convers. Manag. 46 (2005) 475-487.

[8] D. Singh, E. Croiset, P.L. Douglas, M.A. Douglas,Techno-economic study of CO₂ capture from an existing coal-fired power plant: MEA scrubbing vs. O2/CO₂ recycle combustion, Energy Convers. Manag. 44 (2003) 3073-3091.

[9] M.K. Mondal, H.K. Balsora, P. Varshney, Progress and trends in CO₂ capture/separation technologies: a review, Energy 46 (2012) 431-441.

[10] M.S. Islam, R. Yusoff, B.S. Ali, M.N. Islam, M.H. Chakrabarti, Degradation studies of amines and alkanolamines during sour gas treatment process, Int. J. Phys. Sci. 6 (2011) 5883-5895.

[11] T. Supap, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, C. Saiwan, Analysis of monoethanolamine and its oxidative degradation products during CO₂ absorption from flue gases: a comparative study of GCeMS, HPLC-RID, and CE-DAD analytical techniques and possible optimum combinations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45 (2006) 2437-2451.

[12] T. Supap, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, C. Saiwan, Kinetics of sulfur dioxide-and oxygen-induced degradation of aqueous monoethanolamine solution during CO₂ absorption from power plant flue gas streams, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 3 (2009) 133-142.

[13] B. Fostas, A. Gangstad, B. Nenseter, S. Pedersen, M. Sjovoll, A.L. Sorensen, Effects of NOx in the flue gas degradation of MEA, Energy Procedia 4 (2011) 1566-1573.

[14] P. Jackson, M.I. Attala, N-nitrosopipezaines form at high pH in postcombustion capture solutions containing piperazine: a low-energy collisional behaviour study, Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 24 (2010) 3567-3577.

[15] D. Botheju, P. Glarborg, L.-A. Tokheima, NOx reduction using amine reclaimer wastes (ARW) generated in post combustion CO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 10 (2012) 33-45.

[16] A.B. Rao, E.S. Rubin, Identifying cost-effective CO₂ control levels for amine based CO₂ capture systems, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45 (8) (2006) 2421-2429.

[17] A.B. Rao, E.S. Rubin, A technical, economical, and environmental assessment of amine based CO₂ capture technology for power plant greenhouse gas control, Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 (20) (2002) 4467-4475.

[18] M.R.M. Abu-Zahra, L.H.J. Schneiders, J.P.M. Niederer, P.H.M. Feron, G.F. Versteeg, CO₂ capture from power plants: Part I. A parametric study of the technical performance based on monoethanolamine, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 1 (1) (2007) 37-46.

[19] N. El Hassan, M.N. Kaydouh, H. Geagea, H. El Zein, K. Jabbour, S. Casale, H. El Zakhem, P. Massiani, Low temperature dry reforming of methane on rhodium and cobalt based catalysts: active phase stabilization by confinement in mesoporous SBA-15, Appl. Catal. A General 520 (2016) 114-121.

[20] J. Titus, T. Roussiére, G. Wasserschaff, S. Schunk, A. Milanovc, E. Schwab, G. Wagner, O. Oeckler, r Gläser, Dry reforming of methane with carbon dioxide over NiOeMgOeZrO2, Catal. Today 270 (2016) 68-75.

[21] S. Sumrunronnasak, S. Tantayanon, S. Kiatgamolchai, T. Sukonket, Improved hydrogen production from dry reforming reaction using a catalytic packed-bed membrane reactor with Ni-based catalyst and dense PdAgCu alloy membrane, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 41 (2016) 2621-2630.

[22] W. Yu, H.R. Lashgari, K. Wu, K. Sepehrnoori, CO₂ injection for enhanced oil recovery in Bakken tight oil reservoirs, Fuel 159 (2015) 354-363.

[23] R. Nakano, S. Ito, K. Nozaki, Copolymerization of carbon dioxide and butadiene via a lactone intermediate, Nat. Chem. 6 (2014) 325-331.

[24] J. Ma, X. Wang, R. Gao, F. Zeng, C. Huang, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Z. Liang, Study of cyclic CO₂ injection for low-pressure light oil recovery under reservoir conditions, Fuel 174 (2016) 296-306.

[25] L. Li, S. Khorsandi, R.T. Johns, R.M. Dilmore, CO₂ enhanced oil recovery and storage using a gravity-enhanced process, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 42 (2015) 502-515.

[26] B. Kumar, M. Asadi, D. Pisasale, S. Sinha-Ray, B.A. Rosen, R. Haasch, J. Abiade, A.L. Yarin, A. Salehi-Khojin, Renewable and metal-free carbon nanofibre catalysts for carbon dioxide reduction, Nat. Commun. 4 (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3819.

[27] R.R. Ang, L.T. Sin, S.-T. Be, T.-T. Tee, A.A.H. Kadhum, A.R. Rahmat, B.A. Wasmi, A review of copolymerization of greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and oxiranes to produce polycarbonate, J. Clean. Prod. 102 (2015) 1-17.

[28] H.-H. Lee, J.-C. Lee, Y.-J. Joo, M. Oh, C.-H. Lee, Dynamic modeling of Shell entrained flow gasifier in an integrated gasification combined cycle process, Appl. Energy 131 (2014a) 425-440.

[29] J.C. Lee, H.H. Lee, Y.J. Joo, C.H. Lee, M. Oh, Process simulation and thermodynamic analysis of an IGCC (integrated gasification combined cycle) plant with an entrained coal gasifier, Energy 64 (2014b) 58-68.

[30] L. Chen, S.Z. Yong, A.F. Ghoniem, Oxy-fuel combustion of pulverized coal: characterization, fundamentals, stabilization and CFD modeling, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 38 (2012) 156-214.

[31] D.A. Wood, C. Nwaoha, B.F. Towler, Gas-to-liquids (GTL): a review of an industry offering several routes for monetizing natural gas, J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 9 (2012) 196-208.

[32] Z. Wang, J. Yang, Z. Li, Y. Xiang, Syngas composition study, Front. Energy Power Eng. China 3 (3) (2009) 369-372.

[33] National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL),Gasification Introduction, U.S. Department of Energy, 2016 (Accessed 24 September 2016). Available at: https://www.netl.doe.gov/research/coal/energy-systems/gasification/gasifipedia/syngas-composition.

[34] S.P. Kaldis, G. Skodras, G.P. Skellaropoulos, Energy and capital cost analysis of CO₂ capture in coal IGCC processes via gas separation membranes, Fuel Process. Technol. 85 (2004) 337-346.

[35] S.H. Lee, J.N. Kim, W.H. Eom, S.-K. Ryi, J.-S. Park, I.-H. Baek, Development of pilot WGS/multi-layer membrane for CO₂ capture, Chem. Eng. J. 207e208 (2012) 521-525.

[36] E. Blomen, C. Hendriks, F. Neele, Capture technologies: improvements and promising developments, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1505-1512.

[37] R. Aiken, K. Ditzel, F. Morra, D. Wilson, Coal-based Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle: Market Penetration Strategies and Recommendations, Study prepared for DOE, NETL, GTC by Booz Allen Hamilton; 2004, 2004.

[38] W. Shelton, Analysis of Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell Plant Configurations, DOE/NETL-2011-1482; 2011, 2011.

[39] N.S. Siefert, S. Litster, Exergy and economic analyses of advanced IGCCeCCS and IGFCeCCS power plants, Appl. Energy 107 (2013) 315-328.

[40] N.S. Siefert, B.Y. Chang, S. Litster, Exergy and economic analysis of a CaOlooping gasifier for IGFCeCCS and IGCCeCCS, Appl. Energy 128 (2014) 230-245.

[41] D.-K. Moon, D.-G. Lee, C.-H. Lee, H 2 pressure swing adsorption for high pressure syngas from an integrated gasification combined cycle with a carbon capture process, Appl. Energy 183 (2016) 760-774.

[42] N. Holt, IGCC Technology Status, Economics and Needs. Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, 2004. International Energy Agency (IEA) Zero Emission Technologies (ZET) Technology Workshop; 2004.

[43] I.A. Al-Nuaimi, M. Bohra, M. Selam, H.A. Choudhury, M.M. El-Halwagi, N.O. Elbashir, Optimization of synthetic jet fuels aromatic/paraffinic composition via experimental & property integration methods, Chem. Eng. Technol. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cjce.22433.

[44] M.E.E. Abashar, Steam reforming of n-heptane for production of hydrogen and syngas, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 38 (2013) 861-869.

[45] A. De Klerk, Gas-to-liquids conversion, in: Natural Gas Conversion Technologies Workshop of ARPA-e, US Department of Energy, Houston, TX, 2012, 13 January 2012.

[46] Z. Shang, S. Li, L. Li, G. Liu, X. Liang, Highly active and stable alumina supported nickel nanoparticle catalysts for dry reforming of methane, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 201 (2017) 302-309.

[47] P. Singh, J.P.M. Niederer, G.F. Versteeg, Structure and activity relationships for amine-based CO₂ absorbents-II, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 87 (2009) 135-144.

[48] B.P. Spigarelli, S.K. Kawatra, Opportunities and challenges in carbon dioxide capture, J. CO₂ Util. 1 (2013) 69-87.

[49] C.-H. Yu, C.-H. Huang, C.-S. Tan, A review of CO₂ capture by absorption and adsorption, Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 12 (2012) 745-769.

[50] Z.H. Liang, T. Sanpasertparnich, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, D. Gelowitz, R. Idem, Design, modeling & simulation of post-combustion CO₂ capture systems, Carbon Manag. 2 (3) (2011) 265-288.

[51] S.A. Freeman, R. Dugas, D.H. Van Wagener, T. Nguyen, G.T. Rochelle, Carbon dioxide capture with concentrated, aqueous piperazine, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 4 (2010) 119-124.

[52] G. Sartori, D.W. Savage, Sterically hindered amines for CO₂ removal from gases, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 22 (1983) 239-249.

[53] A.L. Kim, H.F. Svendsen, Heat of absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) in monoethanolamine (MEA) and 2-(aminoethyl)ethanolamine (AEEA) solutions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 46 (2007) 5803-5809.

[54] A. Hartono, E.F. da Silva, H.F. Svendsen, Kinetics of carbon dioxide absorption in aqueous solution of diethylenetriamine (DETA), Chem. Eng. Sci. 64 (2009) 3205-3213.

[55] A. Hartono, K.A. Hoff, T. Mejdell, H.F. Svendsen,Solubility of carbon dioxide in aqueous 2.5 M of diethylenetriamine (DETA) solution, Energy Procedia 4 (2011) 179-186.

[56] J.G.M.-S. Monteiro, S. Hussain, H. Majeed, E.O. Mba, A. Hartono, H. Knuutila, H.F. Svendsen, Kinetics of CO₂ absorption by aqueous 3-(methylamino)propylamine solutions: experimental results and modeling, AIChE J. 60 (11) (2014) 3792-3803.

[57] P. Singh, Amine Based Solvent for CO₂ Absorption from Molecular Structure to Process, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Twente, The Netherlands, 2011.

[58] H. Liu, Y. Liang, Z. Liang, S. Liu, K. Fu, T. Sema, W. Rongwong, Solubility, kinetics, absorption heat and mass transfer studies of CO₂ absorption into aqueous solution of 1-dimethylamino-2-propanol, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) 659-664.

[59] H. Liu, M. Xiao, Z. Liang, W. Rongwong, J. Li, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Analysis of reaction kinetics of CO₂ absorption into a novel 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-piperidine solvent using stopped-flow technique, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 54 (50) (2015) 12525-12533.

[60] N. El Hadri, D.V. Quang, E.L.V. Goetheer, M.R.M. Abu Zahra, Aqueous amine solution characterization for post-combustion CO₂ capture process, Appl. Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.03.043.

[61] H. Li, Y.L. Moullec, J. Lu, J. Chen, J.C.V. Marcos, G. Chen, Solubility and energy analysis for CO₂ absorption in piperazine derivatives and their mixtures, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 31 (2014) 25-32.

[62] A. Nouacer, F.B. Belaribi, I. Mokbel, J. Jose, Solubility of carbon dioxide gas in some 2.5 M tertiary amine aqueous solutions, J. Mol. Liq. 190 (2014) 68-73.

[63] Y. Liang, H. Liu, W. Rongwong, Z. Liang, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Solubility, absorption heat and mass transfer studies of CO₂ absorption into aqueous solution of 1-dimethylamine-2-propanol, Fuel 144 (2015) 121-129.

[64] A.V. Rayer, A. Henni, Heats of absorption of CO₂ in aqueous solutions of tertiary amines: N-methyldiethanolamine, 3-dimethylamino-1-propanol, and 1-dimethylamino-2-propanol, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53 (12) (2014) 4953-4965.

[65] Z. Xu, S. Wang, C. Chen, Kinetics study on CO₂ absorption with aqueous solutions of 1,4-Butanediamine, 2-(Diethylamino)-ethanol, and their mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 52 (29) (2013) 9790-9802.

[66] Z. Xu, S. Wang, G. Qi, A.A. Trollebo, H.F. Svendsen, C. Chen, Vapor liquid equilibria and heat of absorption of CO₂ in aqueous 2-(diethylamino)-ethanol solutions, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 29 (2014) 92-103.

[67] T. Sema, A. Naami, Z. Liang, G. Chen, R. Gao, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, A novel reactive 4-diethylamino-2-butanol solvent for capturing CO₂ in the aspect of absorption capacity, cyclic capacity, mass transfer, and reaction kinetics, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 477-484.

[68] S. Singto, T. Supap, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, S. Tantayanon, M.J. Al- Marri, A. Benamor, Synthesis of new amines for enhanced carbon dioxide (CO2) capture performance: the effect of chemical structure on equilibrium solubility, cyclic capacity, kinetics of absorption and regeneration, and heats of absorption and regeneration, Sep. Purif. Technol. 167 (2016) 97-107.

[69] F.A. Chowdhury, H. Yamada, T. Higashii, K. Goto, M. Onoda, CO₂ capture by tertiary amine absorbents: a performance comparison study, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 52 (2013) 8323-8331.

[70] F.A. Chowdhury, H. Okabe, H. Yamada, M. Onoda, Y. Fujioka, Synthesis and selection of hindered amine absorbents for CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 4 (2011) 201-208.

[71] F.A. Chowdhury, H. Okabe, S. Shimizu, M. Onoda, Y. Fujioka, Development of novel tertiary amine absorbents for CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1241-1248.

[72] K. Maneeintr, R.O. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, A.G.H. Wee, Synthesis, solubilities, and cyclic capacities of amino alcohols for CO₂ capture from flue gas streams, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1327-1334.

[73] J. Rolker, M. Seiler, Industrial Progress: new energy-efficient absorbents for the CO₂ separation from natural gas, syngas and flue gas, Adv. Chem. Eng. Sci. 1 (2011) 280-288.

[74] Nakagaki T., Sato S., Sato H. and Yamanaka Y. 2015. Experimental measurement of regeneration energy in CO 2 capture system applying phase separation process using high concentration 2-Amino-2-methyl-1-propanol. Paper presented at the IEAGHG 3rd Post Combustion Capture Conference ( PCCC3), September 8 e 11, Regina, Canada.

[75] S.A. Freeman, Thermal Degradation and Oxidation of Aqueous Piperazine for Carbon Dioxide Capture, Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA, 2011.

[76] G.T. Rochelle, Amine scrubbing for CO₂ capture, Science 325 (2009) 1652-1654.

[77] U.E. Aronu, K.A. Hoff, H.F. Svendsen, CO₂ capture solvent selection by combined absorptionedesorption analysis, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 89 (8) (2011) 1197-1203.

[78] Y. Artanto, J. Jansen, P. Pearson, G. Puxty, A. Cottrell, E. Meuleman, P. Feron, Pilot-scale evaluation of AMP/PZ to capture CO₂ from flue gas of an Australian brown coalefired power station, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 20 (2014) 189-195.

[79] A. Kohl, R. Nielsen,Gas Purification, fifth ed.ed., Gulf Publishing, Texas, 1997.

[80] T. Ogawa, Y. Ohashi, S.U. Yamanaka, K. Miyaike, Development of carbon dioxide removal system from the flue gas of coal fired power plant, Energy Procedia 1 (2008) 721-724.

[81] N.-S. Kwak, J.H. Lee, I.Y. Lee, K.R. Jang, J.-G. Shim, A study of the CO₂ capture pilot plant by amine absorption, Energy 47 (2012) 41-46.

[82] P.-E. Just, Advances in the development of CO₂ capture solvents, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 314-324.

[83] C. Dinca, A. Badea, The parameters optimization for a CFBC pilot plant experimental study of post-combustion CO₂ capture by reactive absorption with MEA, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 12 (2013) 269-279.

[84] R. Idem, M. Wilson, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, A. Chakma, A. Veawab, A. Aroonwilas, D. Gelowitz, Pilot plant studies of the CO₂ capture performance of aqueous MEA and mixed MEA/MDEA solvents at the University of Regina CO₂ capture technology development plant and the boundary dam CO₂ capture demonstration plant, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45 (2006) 2414-2420.

[85] D. Aaron, C. Tsouris, Separation of CO₂ from flue gas: a review, Sep. Sci. Technol. 40 (1-3) (2005) 321-348, http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/SS-200042244.

[86] H.K. Balsora, M.K. Mondal, Solubility of CO₂ in an aqueous blend of diethanolamine and trisodium phosphate, J. Chem. Eng. Data 56 (2011) 4691-4695.

[87] Z. Yang, A.N. Soriano, A.R. Caparanga, M. Li, Equilibrium solubility of carbon dioxide in (2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol + piperazine + water), J. Chem. Thermodyn. 42 (2010) 659-665.

[88] P. Bruder, A. Grimstvedt, T. Mejdell, H.F. Svendsen, CO₂ capture into aqueous solutions of piperazine activated 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol, Chem. Eng. Sci. 66 (2011) 6193-6198.

[89] S.Y. Choi, S.C. Nam, Y.I. Yoon, K.T. Park, S.J. Park, Carbon dioxide absorption into aqueous blends of methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) and alkyl amines containing multiple amino groups, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53 (2014) 14451-14461.

[90] C. Guo, S. Chen, Y. Zhang, Solubility of carbon dioxide in aqueous 2-(2-aminoethylamine) ethanol (AEEA) solution and its mixtures with Nmethyldiethanolamine/2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol, J. Chem. Eng. Data 58 (2013) 460-466.

[91] D. Tong, G.C. Maitland, J.P.M. Trusler, P.S. Fennell, Solubility of carbon dioxide in aqueous blends of 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol and piperazine, Chem. Eng. Sci. 101 (20) (2013) 851-864.

[92] H. Kierzkowska-Pawlak, Kinetics of CO₂ absorption in aqueous N,Ndiethylethanolamine and its blend with N-(2-aminoethyl) ethanolamine using a stirred cell reactor, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 37 (2015) 76-84.

[93] N.A.H. Hairul, A.M. Shariff, M.A. Bustam, Mass transfer performance of 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol and piperazine promoted 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol blended solvent in high pressure CO₂ absorption, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 49 (2016) 121-127.

[94] M.W. Arshad, H.F. Svendsen, P.L. Fosbøl, N. von Solms, K. Thomsen, Equilibrium total pressure and CO₂ solubility in binary and ternary aqueous solutions of 2-(diethylamino) ethanol (DEEA) and 3-(methylamino) propylamine (MAPA), J. Chem. Eng. Data 59 (2014) 764-774.

[95] P.N. Sutar, P.D. Vaidya, E.Y. Kenig, Activated DEEA solutions for CO₂ captureda study of equilibrium and kinetic characteristics, Chem. Eng. Sci. 100 (2013) 234-241.

[96] J.G.M.-S. Monteiro, H. Majeed, H. Knuutila, H.F. Svendsen, Kinetics of CO₂ absorption in aqueous blends of N,N-diethylethanolamine (DEEA) and Nmethyl-1,3-propane-diamine(MAPA), Chem.Eng. Sci. 129(2015)145-155.

[97] C. Nwaoha, C. Saiwan, T. Supap, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, W. Rongwong, M.J. AL-Marri, A. Benamor, Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture performance of aqueous tri-solvent blends containing 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) promoted by diethylenetriamine (DETA), Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 53 (2016) 292-304.

[98] T. Chakravarty, U.K. Phukan, R.H. Weiland, Reaction of acid gases with mixtures of amines, Chem. Eng. Prog. 81 (1985) 32-36.

[99] D.-J. Seo, W.-H. Hong, Solubilities of carbon dioxide in aqueous mixtures of diethanolamine and 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol, J. Chem. Eng. Data 41 (1996) 258-260.

[100] R. Sakwattanapong, A. Aroonwilas, A. Veawab, Behavior of reboiler heat duty for CO₂ capture plants using regenerable single and blended alkanolamines, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 44 (2005) 4465-4473.

[101] R. Dugas, G.T. Rochelle, Absorption and desorption rates of carbon dioxide with monoethanolamine and piperazine, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1163-1169.

[102] M. Nainar, A. Veawab, Corrosion of CO₂ capture process using blended monoethanolamine and piperazine, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48 (20) (2009) 9299-9306.

[103] A. Rafat, M. Atilhan, R. Kahraman, Corrosion behavior of carbon steel in CO₂ saturated amine and imidazolium-, ammonium-, and phosphoniumbased ionic liquid solutions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (2) (2016) 446-454.

[104] J.D. Figueroa, T. Fout, S. Plasynski, H. McIlvried, R.D. Srivastava, Advances in CO₂ capture technologydthe U.S. Department of Energy's carbon sequestration program, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 2 (2008) 9-20.

[105] P. Bruder, H.F. Svendsen, Capacity and kinetics of solvents for postcombustion CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 23 (2012) 45-54.

[106] W. Conway, S. Bruggink, Y. Beyad, W. Luo, I. Melián-Cabrera, G. Puxty, P. Feron, CO 2 absorption into aqueous amine blended solutions containing monoethanolamine (MEA), N,N-dimethylethanolamine (DMEA), N,Ndiethylethanolamine (DEEA) and 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) for post-combustion capture processes, Chem. Eng. Sci. 126 (2015) 446-454.

[107] X. Chen, S.A. Freeman, G.T. Rochelle, Foaming of aqueous piperazine and monoethanolamine for CO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 5 (2011) 381-386.

[108] T. Supap, C. Saiwan, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Solvent management: solvent stability and amine degradation in CO₂ capture process, Carbon Manag. 2 (5) (2011) 551-566.

[109] A. Veawab, A. Aroonwilas, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, CO₂ absorption performance of aqueous alkanolamines in packed columns, Fuel Chem. Div. Prepr. 47 (1) (2002) 49-50.

[110] A. Aroonwilas, A. Veawab, Characterization and comparison of the CO₂ absorption performance into single and blended alkanolamines in a packed column, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43 (2004) 2228-2237.

[111] C. Nwaoha, C. Saiwan, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, T. Supap, W. Rongwong, R. Idem, M.J. AL-Marri, A. Benamor, Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture: absorption-desorption capabilities of 2-Amino-2-Methyl-1-Propanol (AMP), piperazine (PZ) and monoethanolamine (MEA) tri-solvent blends, J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 33 (2016) 742-750.

[112] C. Nwaoha, CO 2 Absorption: Solubility of CO₂ in 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol Solvent Promoted by Piperazine and Monoethanolamine Blends, MSc Thesis, The Petroleum and Petrochemical College, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, 2015.

[113] Nwaoha C.; Saiwan C.; Tontiwachwuthikul P. Supap T. 2015. Solubility of carbon dioxide (CO2) in highly concentrated aqueous ternary blend of 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP), piperazine (PZ), and monoethanolamine (MEA). Paper presented at IEAGHG 3rd Post Combustion Capture Conference ( PCCC3), September 8 e 11, Regina, Canada. Available at: https://www.eventspro.net/iea/viewpdf.esp?id=1090075&file=%5C% 5Cdata%5Cmo%24%5CEventwin%5CPool%5COffice109%5Cdocs%5Cpdf% 5Cpccc3Abstract00019%2Epdf.

[114] A. Haghtalab, H. Eghbali, A. Shojaeian, Experiment and modeling solubility of CO₂ in aqueous solutions of diisopropanolamine + 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol + piperazine at high pressures, J. Chem. Thermodyn. 71 (2014) 71-83.

[115] H. Esmaeili, B. Roozbehani, Pilot-scale experiments for post-combustion CO₂ capture from gas fired power plants with a novel solvent, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 30 (2014) 212-215.

[116] Y. Liu, W. Fan, K. Wang, J. Wang, Studies of CO₂ absorption/regeneration performances of novel aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA) e based solution, J. Clean. Prod. 112 (2016) 4012-4021.

[117] D.D.D. Pinto, H. Knuutila, G. Fytianos, G. Haugen, T. Mejdell, H.F. Svendsen, CO₂ post combustion capture with a phase change solvent. Pilot plant campaign, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 31 (2014) 153-164.

[118] J.N. Knudsen, O.M. Bade, I. Askestad, O. Gorset, T. Mejdell, Pilot plant demonstration of CO₂ Capture from Cement Plant with advanced amine technology, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) 6464-6475.

[119] H.P. Mangalapally, H. Hasse, Pilot plant study of two new solvents for post combustion carbon dioxide capture by reactive absorption and comparison to monoethanolamine, Chem. Eng. Sci. 66 (2011) 5512-5522.

[120] Saskpower, Boundary Dam Carbon Capture Project, Available at:, 2014 http://saskpowerccs.com/ccs-projects/boundary-dam-carbon-captureproject/.

[121] PCCCS, Large Demonstration Post-combustion Carbon Capture and Storage (PCCCS), 2015. https://sequestration.mit.edu/tools/projects/indexpilots.html.

[122] A. Aroonwilas, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Mass transfer coefficients and correlation for CO₂ absorption into 2-Amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) using structured packing, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37 (1998) 569-575.

[123] M. Caplow, Kinetics of carbamate formation and breakdown, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 90 (24) (1968) 6795-6803.

[124] P.V. Danckwerts, The reaction of CO₂ with ethanolamines, Chem. Eng. Sci. 34 (1979) 443-446.

[125] R.J. Little, G.F. Versteeg, W.P.M. van Swaaij, Kinetics of CO₂ with primary and secondary amines in aqueous solutions e I. Zwitterion deprotonation kinetics for DEA and DIPA in aqueous blends of alkanolamines, Chem. Eng. Sci. 47 (8) (1992) 2027-2035.

[126] T.L. Donaldson, Y.N. Nguyen, Carbon dioxide reaction kinetics and transport in aqueous amine membranes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 19 (1980) 260-266.

[127] H.P. Mangalapally, H. Hasse, Pilot plant experiments for post combustion carbon dioxide capture by reactive absorption with novel solvents, Energy Procedia 4 (2011) 1-8.

[128] H. Najibi, N. Maleki, Equilibrium solubility of carbon dioxide in Nmethyldiethanolamine + piperazine aqueous solution: experimental measurement and prediction, Fluid Phase Equil. 354 (2013) 298-303.

[129] S. Mudhasakul, H. Ku, P.L. Douglas, A simulation model of a CO₂ absorption process with methyldiethanolamine solvent and piperazine as an activator, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 15 (2013) 134-141.

[130] V. Ermatchkov, G. Maurer, Solubility of carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions of N-methyldiethanolamine and piperazine: prediction and correlation, Fluid Phase Equil. 302 (2011) 338-346.

[131] F. Closmann, T. Nguyen, G.T. Rochelle, MDEA/piperazine as a solvent for CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1351-1357.

[132] B.S. Ali, M.K. Aroua, Effect of Piperazine on CO₂ loading in aqueous solutions of MDEA at low pressure, Int. J. Thermophys. 25 (6) (2004) 1863-1870.

[133] A. Adeosun, M.R.M. Abu-Zahra, Evaluation of amine-blend solvent systems for CO₂ post-combustion capture applications, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 211-218.

[134] M. Kundu, S.S. Bandyopadhyay, Solubility of CO₂ in water + diethanolamine + N-methyldiethanolamine, Fluid Phase Equil. 248 (2006) 158-167.

[135] D.A. Glasscock, J.E. Critchfield, G.T. Rochelle, CO₂ absorption/desorption in mixtures of methyldiethanolamine with monoethanolamine or diethanolamine, Chem. Eng. Sci. 46 (1991) 2829-2845.

[136] S.K. Dash, A.N. Samanta, S.S. Bandyopadhyay, Simulation and parametric study of post combustion CO₂ capture process using (AMP + PZ) blended solvent, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 21 (2014) 130-139.

[137] A. Dey, A. Aroonwilas, CO₂ absorption into MEA-AMP blend: mass transfer and absorber height index, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 211-215.

[138] W.-J. Choi, J.-B. Seo, S.-Y. Jang, J.-H. Jung, K.-J. Oh, Removal characteristics of CO₂ using aqueous MEA/AMP solutions in the absorption and regeneration process, J. Environ. Sci. 21 (2009) 907-913.

[139] U.E. Aronu, A.F. Ciftja, I. Kim, A. Hartono, Understanding precipitation in amino acid salt systems at process conditions, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 233-240.

[140] M.E. D.W.F Brilman, M.J. Groeneveld, Precipitation regime for selected amino acid salts for CO₂ capture from flue gases, Energy Procedia 1 (1) (2009) 979-984.

[141] S.A. Freeman, X. Chen, T. Nguyen, H. Rafique, Q. Xu, G.T. Rochelle, Piperazine/N-methylpiperazine/N, N'-Dimethylpiperazine as an Aqueous Solvent for Carbon Dioxide Capture, Oil & Gas Science and Technology e Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, 2013, pp. 1-12.

[142] U. Liebenthal, D.D.D. Pinto, J.G.M.S. Monteiro, H.F. Svendsen, A. Kather, Overall process analysis and optimization for CO₂ capture from coal fired power plants based on phase change solvents forming two liquid phases, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 1844-1854.

[143] S. Zheng, M. Tao, Q. Liu, L. Ning, Y. He, Y. Shi, Capturing CO₂ into the precipitate of a phase-changing solvent after absorption, Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (2014) 8905-8910.

[144] Q. Ye, X. Wang, Y. Lu, Screening and evaluation of novel biphasic solvents for energy-efficient post-combustion CO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 39 (2015) 205-214.

[145] Hu L. 2009. Phase transitional absorption method. United States Patent, 7541001.

[146] P. Bruder, H.F. Svendsen, Solvent comparison for post combustion CO₂ capture, in: 1st Post Combustion Capture Conference (PCCC1), May 17-19, Abu Dhabi, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2011.

[147] J. Zhang, Y. Qiao, W. Wang, D.W. Agar, R. Misch, K. Hussain, Development of an energy-efficient CO₂ capture process using thermomorphic biphasic solvents, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 1254-1261.

[148] Z.C. Xu, S.J. Wang, C.H. Chen, CO₂ absorption by biphasic solvents: mixtures of 1,4-Butanediamine and 2-(Diethylamino)-ethanol, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 16 (2013) 107-115.

[149] A. Adeosun, N. El Hadri, E. Goetheer, M.R.M. Abu-Zahra, Absorption of CO₂ by amine blends solution: an experimental evaluation, Int. J. Eng. Sci. 3 (9) (2013) 12-23.

[150] H. Kierzkowska-Pawlak, Carbon dioxide removal from flue gases by absorption/desorption in aqueous diethanolamine solutions, J. Air & Waste Manag. Assoc. 60 (8) (2010) 925-931.

[151] C.J. Geankoplis, Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles (Includes Unit Operations), fourth ed., Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA, 2003.

[152] R.F. Strigle Jr., Packed Tower Design and Applications:Random and Structured Packings, second ed.ed., Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, 1994.

[153] O. Levenspiel, Chemical Reaction Engineering, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc, NJ, 1999.

[154] A. Naami, M. Edali, T. Sema, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Mass transfer performance of CO₂ absorption into aqueous solutions of 4-diethylamino-2-butanol, monoethanolamine, and N-methyldiethanolamine, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (18) (2012) 647-6479.

[155] A. Aroonwilas, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, High-efficiency structured packing for CO₂ separation using 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP), Sep. Purif. Technol. 12 (1997) 67-79.

[156] D.V. Quang, A.V. Rabindran, N.E. Hadri, M.R.M. Abu-Zahra, Reduction in the regeneration energy of CO₂ capture process by impregnating amine solvent onto precipitated silica, Eur. Sci. J. 9 (30) (2013) 82-102.

[157] H.-Y. Lin, C.-H. Wang, Energy Reduction of CO₂ Capture by New Absorbents Development. China Steel Technical Report. 26, 2013, pp. 83-89.

[158] A. Chakma, CO₂ capture processes-Opportunities for improved energy efficiencies, Energy Convers. Manag. 38 (1997) S51-S56.

[159] M. Lail, J. Tanthana, L. Coleman, Non-aqueous solvent (NAS) CO₂ capture process, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) 580-594.

[160] S.-W. Rho, K.-P. Yoo, J.S. Lee, S.C. Nam, J.E. Son, B.M. Min, Solubility of CO₂ in aqueous methyldiethanolamine solutions, J. Chem. Eng. Data 42 (6) (1997) 1161-1164.

[161] Q. Xie, A. Aroonwilas, A. Veawab,Measurement of heat of absorption into 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP)/piperazine (PZ) blends using differential reaction calorimeter, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 826-833.

[162] K. Goto, H. Okabe, S. Shimizu, M. Onoda, Y. Fujioka, Evaluation method for novel absorbents for CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1083-1089.

[163] N. McCann, M. Maeder, M. Attalla, Simulation of enthalpy and capacity of CO₂ absorption by aqueous amine systems, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 47 (2008) 2002-2009.

[164] H. Arcis, L. Rodier, J.-Y. Coxam, Enthalpy of solution of CO₂ in aqueous solutions of 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol, J. Chem. Thermodyn. 39 (2007) 878-887.

[165] Y. Coulier, A. Lowe, P.R. Tremaine, J.-Y. Coxam, K. Ballerat-Busserolles, CO₂ in aqueous solutions of 2-methylpiperidine: heats of solution and modeling, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 47 (2016) 322-329.

[166] K. Huang, Y.-T. Wu, S. Dai, Sigmoid correlations for gas solubility and enthalpy change of chemical absorption of CO2, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 54 (2015) 10126-10133.

[167] Abdulkadir A., and Abu-Zahra M. 2013. Measurements of reaction enthalpies for aqueous amine solutions for post-combustion carbon capture applications. Paper presented at IEAGHG 2nd Post Combustion Capture Conference (PCCC2), September 17 e 20, Bergen, Norway. Available at: http://ieaghg.org/docs/General_Docs/PCCC2/Secured%20pdfs/5b_3_Abdurahim%20Abdulkadir-PCCC2%20Confernece.pdf.

[168] Abdulkadir A., Al-Ali K., Al Hajaj A., Nashef E., Abu Zahra M. 2015. CO 2 enthalpy and heat capacity measurements in aqueous piperazine blends with different alkanolamines. Paper presented at IEAGHG 3rd Post Combustion Capture Conference ( PCCC3), September 8 e 11, Regina, Canada. Available at: https://www.eventspro.net/iea/viewpdf.esp?id=1090075&file=%5C%5Cdata%5Cmo%24%5CEventwin%5CPool% 5COffice109%5Cdocs%5Cpdf%5Cpccc3Abstract00096.pdf.

[169] W. Conway, Q. Yang, S. James, C.-C. Wei, M. Bown, P. Feron, G. Puxty, Designer amines for post combustion CO₂ capture processes, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) 1827-1834.

[170] L. Coleman, M. Lail, S. Reynolds, M. Lesemann, R. Gupta, C. Riemann, K. Sugavanam, S. Rigby, G. Sieder, T. Spengeman, T. Katz, Non-aqueous solvents for post-combustion CO₂ capture, in: 1st Post-Combustion Capture Conference (PCCC1), May 18, 2011, Abu Dhabi, 2011. Available at: http://ieaghg.org/docs/General_Docs/PCCC1/Presentations/2_RTI-BASF%20Presentation%20-%20PCCC1%20Abu%20Dhabi%20-%20May%2018% 202011_v2.pdf.

[171] G.T. Rochelle, G.S. Goff, J.T. Cullinane, S. Freguia, Research results for CO₂ capture from flue gas by aqueous absorption/stripping, in: Proceeding of the Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference LRGCC, 131-151, Norman, OK, 2002.

[172] J.N. Knudsen, P.-J. Vilhelmsen, J.N. Jensen, O. Biede,CASTOR -ENCAP -CACHET -DYNAMIS Common Technical Training Workshop 22 - 24 January 2008 Lyon, France, 2008.

[173] J.C.M. Pires, F.G. Martins, M.C.M. Alvim-Ferraz, M. Sim-oes, Recent developments on carbon capture and storage: an overview, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 89 (2011) 1446-1460.

[174] P. Singh, W.P.M. Van Swaaij, D.W.F. Brilman, Energy efficient solvents for CO₂ absorption from flue gas: vapor liquid equilibrium and pilot plant study, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 2021-2046.

[175] R. Idem, T. Supap, H. Shi, D. Gelowitz, M. Ball, C. Campbell, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Practical experience in post-combustion CO₂ capture using reactive solvents in large pilot and demonstration plants, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 40 (2015) 6-25.

[176] H. Shi, A. Naami, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Catalytic and noncatalytic solvent regeneration during absorption based CO₂ capture with single and blended reactive amine solvents, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 26 (2014) 39-50.

[177] M. Stec, A. Tatarczuk, L. Wiecław-Solny, A. Krótki, M. Sciazko, S. Tokarski, Pilot plant results for advanced CO₂ capture process using amine scrubbing at the Jaworzno II Power Plant in Poland, Fuel 151 (2015) 50-56.

[178] J. Jung, Y.S. Jeong, U. Lee, Y. Lim, C. Han, New configuration of the CO₂ capture process using aqueous monoethanolamine for coal-fired power Plants, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 54 (2015) 3865-3878.

[179] S. Saito, M. Udatsu, H. Kitamuraa, S. Murai, Mikawa CO₂ capture pilot plant test of new amine solvent, in: IEA 3rd Post e Combustion Carbon Capture Conference (PCCC3), 2015, September 10. Available at: http://www.ieaghg.org/docs/General_Docs/PCCC3_PDF/4_PCCC3_7_Saito.pdf.

[180] R. Notz, N. Asprion, I. Clausen, H. Hasse, Selection and pilot plant tests of new absorbents for post-combustion carbon dioxide capture, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 85 (4) (2007) 510-515.

[181] W. Srisang, F. Pouryousefi, P.A. Osei, B. Decardi-Nelson, A. Akachuku, R. Idem, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Study of heat duty of catalysteaided amineebased hot water CO₂ capture process, in: IEA 3rd PosteCombustion Capture Conference (PCCC3), 2015, September 8-11. Available at: http://ieaghg.org/docs/General_Docs/PCCC3_PDF/2_PCCC3_3C_Srisang.pdf.

[182] A. Sexton, K. Fisher, C. Beitler, K. Dombrowski, J. Youngerman, G. Rochelle, E. Chen, P. Nielsen, J. Davison, P. Singh, Evaluation of amine reclaimer operation and waste disposal from postecombustion CO₂ capture, in: Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, USA, 2016, February 21-24.

[183] H. Lepaumier, D. Picq, P.-L. Carrette, New amines for CO₂ capture. I. Mechanisms of amine degradation in the presence of CO2, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48 (2009) 9061-9067.

[184] K.L.S. Campbell, T. Lapidot, D.R. Williams, Foaming of CO2-loaded amine solvents degraded thermally under stripper conditions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 54 (2015) 7751-7755.

[185] B. Thitakamol, A. Veawab, A. Aroonwilas, Foaming in amine-based CO₂ capture process: experiment, modeling and simulation, Energy Procedia 1 (2009) 1381-1386.

[186] B. Thitakamol, A. Veawab, Foaming behavior in CO₂ absorption process using aqueous solutions of single and blended alkanolamines, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 47 (2008) 216-225.

[187] DeHart T. R., Hansen D. A., Mariz C. L. and McCullough J. G. 1999. Solving Corrosion Problems at the NEA Bellingham Massachusetts Carbon Dioxide Recovery Plant. Presented at NACE International Conference Corrosion ‘99, San Antonio, TX, Paper No. 264.

[188] P.C. Rooney, T. Bacon, M.S. Dupart, Part 2: Effect of Heat Stable Salts on MDEA Solution Corrosivity. Hydrocarbon Process, 1997, p. 65.

[189] L. Dubois, D. Thomas, Carbon dioxide absorption into aqueous amine based solvents: modeling and absorption tests, Energy Procedia 4 (2011) 1353-1360.

[190] D.W. Whymark, J.M. Ottaway, The absorption of carbon dioxide in solutions of monoethanolamine, Talanta 19 (1972) 209-212.

[191] Y. Zhang, H. Chen, C.-C. Chen, J.M. Plaza, R. Dugas, G.T. Rochelle, Rate based process modeling study of CO₂ capture with aqueous monoethanolamine solution, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48 (2009) 9233-9246.

[192] P. Chandan, L. Richburg, S. Bhatnagar, J.E. Remias, K. Liu, Impact of fly ash on monoethanolamine degradation during CO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control (2014) 102-108.

[193] E.F. da Silva, H. Lepaumier, A. Grimstvedt, S.J. Vevelstad, A. Einbu, K. Vernstad, H.F. Svendsen, K. Zahlsen, Understanding 2-ethanolamine degradation in post-combustion CO2Capture, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (41) (2012) 13329-13338.

[194] H. Lepaumier, D. Picq, P.-L. Carrette, New amines for CO₂ capture. II. Oxidative degradation mechanisms, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48 (2009b) 9068-9075.

[195] A. Chakma, A. Meisen, Methyl-diethanolamine degradation -mechanism and kinetics, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 75 (5) (1997) 861-871.

[196] J. Davis, Thermal Degradation of Aqueous Amines Used for Carbon Dioxide Capture, PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA, 2009.

[197] O.F. Dawodu, A. Meisen, Degradation of alkanolamine blends by carbon dioxide, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 74 (6) (1996) 960-966.

[198] I. Eide-Haugmo, H. Lepaumier, A. Einbu, K. Vernstad, E.F. daSilva, H.F. Svendsen, Chemical stability and biodegradability of new solvents for CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 4 (2011) 1631-1636.

[199] S.A. Freeman, G.T. Rochelle, Thermal degradation of aqueous piperazine for CO₂ capture: 2. Product types and generation rates, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (2012) 7726-7735.

[200] H. Gao, Z. Liang, H. Liao, R.O. Idem, Thermal degradation of aqueous DEEA solution at stripper conditions for postecombustion CO₂ capture, Chem. Eng. Sci. 135 (2015) 330-342.

[201] Y. Du, Y. Wang, G.T. Rochelle, Thermal degradation of novel piperazine e based blends forCO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 49 (2016) 239-249.

[202] S.A. Mazari, B.S. Ali, B.M. Jan, I.M. Saeed, Thermal degradation of piperazine and diethanolamine blend for CO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 47 (2016) 1-7.

[203] N.A. Fine, M.J. Goldman, G.T. Rochelle, Nitrosamine Formation in amine scrubbing at desorber temperatures, Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (2014) 8777-8783.

[204] T. Wang, K.-J. Jens, Oxidative degradation of aqueous PZ solution and AMP/PZ blends for post-combustion carbon dioxide capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 24 (2014) 98-105.

[205] N.A. Fine, M.J. Goldman, G.T. Rochelle,Formation of nitrosamines in amine scrubbing with piperazine and monoethanolamine, in:2nd Post Combustion Capture Conference (PCCC2), Austin, Texas, USA, 2013. Available at: https://www.eventspro.net/iea/viewpdf.esp?id=1090061&file=%5C%5Cdata%5Cmo%24%5CEventwin%5CPool% 5COffice109%5Cdocs%5Cpdf%5Cpccc2Abstract00078.pdf.

[206] H.E. Buist, S. Devito, R.A. Goldohm, R.H. Stierum, J. Venhorst, E.D. Kroese, Hazard assessment of nitrosamine and nitramine by-products of aminebased CCS: alternative approaches, Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 71 (3) (2015) 601-623.

[207] G. de Koeijer, R.V. Talstad, S. Nepstad, D. Tønnessen, O. Falk-Pedersen, Y. Maree, C. Nielsen, Health risk analysis for emissions to air from CO₂ Technology Centre Mongstad, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 18 (2013) 200-207.

[208] Y. Zhang, J. Xu, Y. Zhang, J. Zhang, Q. Li, H. Liu, M. Shang, Health risk analysis of nitrosamine emissions from CO₂ capture with monoethanolamine in coal-fired power plants, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 20 (2014) 37-42.

[209] N. Dai, W.A. Mitch, Influence of amine structural characteristics on Nnitrosamine formation potential relevant to post-combustion CO₂ capture systems, Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (2013) 13175-13183.

[210] K. Yu, M.C. Reichard, N. Dai, Nitrosamine formation in the desorber of tertiary alkanolamine-based carbon dioxide capture systems, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (9) (2016) 2604-2614.

[211] J.H. Ridd, Nitrosation, diazotisation and deamination, Q. Rev. Chem. Soc. 15 (1961) 418-441, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/QR9611500418.

[212] P.A.S. Smith, R.N. Loeppky, Nitrosative cleavage of tertiary amines, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 89 (1967) 1147-1157.

[213] O. Lawal, A. Bello, R. Idem, The role of methyl diethanolamine (MDEA) in preventing the oxidative degradation of CO₂ loaded and concentrated aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA)eMDEA blends during CO₂ absorption from flue gases, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 44 (2005) 1874-1896.

[214] M.S. Dupart, P.C. Rooney, T.R. Bacon, Comparing laboratory and plant data for MDEA/DEA blends, Hydrocarb. Process. 78 (1999) 81-86.

[215] G.T. Rochelle, Thermal degradation of amines for CO₂ capture, Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 1 (2012) 183-190.

[216] O. Namjoshi, L. Li, Y. Du, G.T. Rochelle, Thermal degradation of piperazine blends with diamines, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 1904-1911.

[217] L. Li, A.K. Voice, H. Li, O. Namjoshi, T. Nguyen, Y. Du, G.T. Rochelle, Amine blends using concentrated piperazine, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 353-369.

[218] O. Namjoshi,Thermal degradation of PZ-promoted Tertiary Amines for CO2 Capture, PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, USA, 2015.

[219] M. Karl, R.F. Wright, T.F. Berglen, B. Denby, Worst case scenario study to assess the environmental impact of amine emissions from a CO₂ capture plant, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 5 (2011) 439-447.

[220] T. Nguyen, M. Hilliard, G.T. Rochelle, Amine volatility in CO₂ capture, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 4 (2010) 707-715.

[221] B. Thitakamol, A. Veawab, A. Aroonwilas, Environmental impacts of absorption-based CO₂ capture unit for post-combustion treatment of flue gas from coal-fired power plant, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 1 (2007) 318-342.

[222] G.S. Goff, G.T. Rochelle, Monoethanolamine degradation: O2 mass transfer effects under CO₂ capture conditions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43 (2004) 6400-6408.

[223] D.G. Chapel, J. Ernest, C.L. Mariz, Recovery of CO₂ from flue gases: commercial trends, in: Conference Proceedings, Canadian Society of Chemical Engineers Annual Meeting, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, 1999. Available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/2b3.pdf.

[224] J. Koornneef, T. van Keulen, A. Faaij, W. Turkenburg, Life cycle assessment of a pulverized coal power plant with post-combustion capture, transport and storage of CO2, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 2 (2008) 448-467.

[225] M. Azzi, S. Day, D. French, B. Halliburton, P. Jackson, S. Lavrencic, K. Riley, A. Tibbett, Capture Mongstad -Project a e Establishing Sampling and Analytical Procedures for Potentially Harmful Components from Postcombustion Amine Based CO₂ Capture e Task 2: Procedures for Manual Sampling, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), 2010. Available at: http://www.gassnova.no/no/Documents/Proceduresformanualsampling_CSIRO.pdf.

[226] Gelowitz D., Supap T., Idem R., Campbell C. and Ball M. 2015, September. Post Combustion Carbon Capture Source Emission Sampling Method Development. Paper presented at IEAGHG 3rd Post Combustion Capture Conference (PCCC3), Regina, Canada.

[227] E. Gjernes, L.I. Helgesen, Y. Maree, Health and environmental impact of amine based post combustion CO₂ capture, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 735-742.

[228] P. Khakharia, H.M. Kvamsdal, E.F. da Silva, T.J.H. Vlugt, E. Goetheer, Field study of a Brownian Demister Unit to reduce aerosol based emission from a post combustion CO₂ capture plant, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 28 (2014) 57-64.

[229] K. Fujita, D. Muraoka, T. Ogawa, H. Kitamura, K. Suzuki, Satoshi Saito Evaluation of amine emissions from the post-combustion CO₂ capture pilot plant, Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 727-734.

[230] A.K. Morken, B. Nenseter, S. Pedersen, M. Chhaganlal, J.K. Feste, R.B. Tyborgnes, O. Ullestad, H. Ulvatn, L. Zhu, T. Mikoviny, A. Wisthaler, T. Cents, O.M. Bade, J. Knudsen, G. de Koeijer, O. Falk-Pedersen, E.S. Hamborg, Emission results of amine plant operations from MEA testing at the CO₂ Technology Centre Mongstad, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) 6023-6038.

[231] J.N. Pitts, D. Grosjean, K. Vanmcauwenberghe, J.P. Schmidt, D.R. Fitz, Photooxidation of aliphatic amines under simulated atmospheric conditions: formation of nitrosamines, nitramines, amides, and photochemical oxidant, Environ. Sci. Technol. 12 (8) (1978) 946-953.

[232] I. Eide-Haugmo, O.G. Brakstad, K.A. Hoff, E.F. da Silva, H.F. Svendsen, Marine biodegradability and ecotoxicity of solvents for CO₂ capture of natural gas, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 2 (2012) 184-192.

[233] B.A. Oyenekan, G.T. Rochelle, Energy performance of stripper configurations for CO₂ capture by aqueous amines, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45 (8) (2006) 2457-2464.

[234] H. Gao, L. Zhou, Z. Liang, R. Idem, K. Fu, T. Sema, P. Tontiwachwuthikul, Comparative studies of heat duty and total equivalent work of a new heat pump distillation with split flow process, conventional split flow process, and conventional baseline process for CO₂ capture using monoethanolamine, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 24 (2014) 87-97.

[235] M. Karimi, M. Hillestad, H.F. Svendsen, Capital costs and energy considerations of different alternative stripper configurations for postecombustion CO₂ capture, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 89 (2011) 1229-1236.

[236] F. Rezazadeh, W.F. Gale, Y.-J. Lin, G.T. Rochelle, Energy performance of advanced reboiled and flash stripper configurations for CO₂ capture using monoethanolamine, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (2016) 4622-4631.

[237] Aspen Technology Inc. USA. Aspen Plus. Available at: https://www. aspentech.com/.

[238] Aspen Technology Inc. USA. Aspen HYSYS. Available at: https://www. aspentech.com/.

[239] ProMax®. Bryan Research & Engineering Inc. USA ProMax Available at: https://bre.com/.

[240] ProTreat®. Optimized Gas Treating Inc. USA. Available at: http://www. ogtrt.com/protreat.

[241] E.S. Rubin, A.B. Rao, A Technical Economic and Environmental Assessment of Amine-based CO₂ Capture Technology for Power Plant Greenhouse Gas Control. Annual Technical Progress Report for U.S. Department of Energy, 2001, p. 11.

[242] Z. Wang, W.A. Mitch, Influence of dissolved metals on N-Nitrosamine Formation under amine-based CO₂ capture conditions, Environ. Sci. Technol. 49 (2015) 11974-11981.