Trans-cinnamaldehyde alleviates high-fat diet-induced oxidative stress in zebrafish via direct and gut microbial mediated activations of antioxidant pathways

Abstract

Functional additives play a significant role in improving health problems caused by high-fat diet (HFD) in farmed fish species. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of trans-cinnamaldehyde (TCA) on liver and gut health of HFD-feeding zebrafish. The results showed that triglyceride (TAG), serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartic aminotransferase (AST) concentrations were significantly reduced in the TCA50 group. Liver malondialdehyde (MDA) content was significantly reduced, whereas higher activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) were recorded in the TCA50 group. Besides, TCA promoted the expression of proteins related to the antioxidant stk11/ampkα/nrf2 pathway. Serum lipopolysaccharides (LPS) content and expression of pro-inflammatory genes were notably reduced in the TCA groups, and the TCA50 group improved the intestinal villi and goblet cells in the midgut and hindgut. Zebrafish survival rate was increased in TCA groups after challenged with Aeromonas veronii Hm091 and Aeromonas hydrophila NJ-1. The relative abundances of Fusobacteriota and Cetobacterium were elevated in the TCA50 group. The gut microbiota altered by TCA50 group indirectly improved the antioxidant capacity of germ-free (GF) zebrafish, through the antioxidant gsk3β/nrf2 pathway, with Cetobacterium somerae potentially acting as the primary effector bacterium in enhancing the antioxidant capacity of the fish. Feeding of 50 mg/kg TCA directly to GF zebrafish activated the stk11/ampkα/nrf2 pathway and enhanced the expression of antioxidant enzymes. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with 50 mg/kg TCA alleviated HFD-induced oxidative stress in zebrafish via direct activation of stk11/ampkα/nrf2 and gut microbiota-mediated activation of gsk3β/nrf2 pathways.

Keywords

High-fat diet / Trans-cinnamaldehyde / Liver health / Antioxidant / Gut microbiota / Zebrafish

References

[1] Abd El-Hamid MI, Ibrahim SM, Eldemery F, El-Mandrawy SAM, Metwally AS, Khalifa E, Elnahriry SS, Ibrahim D. Dietary cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion boosts growth and transcriptomes of antioxidant and immune related genes to fight Streptococcus agalactiae infection in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2021, 113: 96-105.

[2] Bang HB, Lee YH, Kim SC, Sung CK, Jeong KJ. Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for the production of cinnamaldehyde. Microb Cell Fact, 2016, 15: 16.

[3] Bang HB, Son J, Kim SC, Jeong KJ. Systematic metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for the enhanced production of cinnamaldehyde. Metab Eng, 2023, 76: 63-74.

[4] Cabello CM, Bair WB, Lamore SD, Ley S, Bause AS, Azimian S, Wondrak GT. The cinnamon-derived Michael acceptor cinnamic aldehyde impairs melanoma cell proliferation, invasiveness, and tumor growth. Free Radic Biol Med, 2009, 46: 220-231.

[5] Cao X-F, Dai Y-J, Liu M-Y, Yuan X-Y, Wang C-C, Huang Y-Y, Liu W-B, Jiang G-Z. High-fat diet induces aberrant hepatic lipid secretion in blunt snout bream by activating endoplasmic reticulum stress-associated IRE1/XBP1 pathway. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids, 2019, 1864: 213-223.

[6] Chen J, Wei W, Liang C, Ren Y, Geng Y, Chen D, Lai W, Guo H, Deng H, Huang X, Ouyang P. Protective effect of cinnamaldehyde on channel catfish infected by drug-resistant Aeromonas hydrophila. Microb Pathog, 2022, 167. ArticleID: 105572

[7] Chen Z, Jing F, Lu M, Su C, Tong R, Pan L. Effects of dietary trans-cinnamaldehyde on growth performance, lipid metabolism, immune response and intestinal microbiota of Litopenaeus vannamei. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2022, 131: 908-917.

[8] Chen L, Yuan J, Li H, Ding Y, Yang X, Yuan Z, Hu Z, Gao Y, Wang X, Lu H, Cai Y, Bai Y, Pan X. Trans-cinnamaldehyde attenuates renal ischemia/reperfusion injury through suppressing inflammation via JNK/p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Int Immunopharmacol, 2023, 118. ArticleID: 110088

[9] Chowdhry S, Zhang Y, McMahon M, Sutherland C, Cuadrado A, Hayes JD. Nrf2 is controlled by two distinct β-TrCP recognition motifs in its Neh6 domain, one of which can be modulated by GSK-3 activity. Oncogene, 2012, 32: 3765-3781.

[10] Clements KD, Angert ER, Montgomery WL, Choat JH. Intestinal microbiota in fishes: what’s known and what’s not. Mol Ecol, 2014, 23: 1891-1898.

[11] DiNicolantonio JJ, McCarty MF, Assanga SI, Lujan LL, O’Keefe JH. Ferulic acid and berberine, via Sirt1 and AMPK, may act as cell cleansing promoters of healthy longevity. Open Heart, 2022, 9. ArticleID: e001801

[12] Dodson M, de la Vega MR, Cholanians AB, Schmidlin CJ, Chapman E, Zhang DD. Modulating NRF2 in disease: Timing is everything. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 2019, 59: 555-575.

[13] Du J, Cao L-P, Jia R, Gu Z, He Q, Xu P, Yin G, Ma Y. Alleviative effects of total flavones of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch on oxidative stress and lipid metabolism disorder induced by high-fat diet in intestines of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). 3 Biotech, 2021, 11. ArticleID: 348

[14] Encarnação P. Functional feed additives in aquaculture feeds. Aquafeed Formulation, 2016. Amsterdam, Elseiver: 217-237.

[15] Faikoh EN, Hong Y-H, Hu S-Y. Liposome-encapsulated cinnamaldehyde enhances zebrafish (Danio rerio) immunity and survival when challenged with Vibrio vulnificus and Streptococcus agalactiae. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2014, 38: 15-24.

[16] Fan Y, Pedersen O. Gut microbiota in human metabolic health and disease. Nat Rev Microbiol, 2020, 19: 55-71.

[17] FAO. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2024—Blue Transformation in action, 2024. Rome, FAO

[18] Fatima N, Khan MI, Jawed H, Qureshi U, Ul-Haq Z, Hafizur RM, Shah TA, Dauelbait M, Bin Jardan YA, Shazly GA. Cinnamaldehyde ameliorates diabetes-induced biochemical impairments and AGEs macromolecules in a pre-clinical model of diabetic nephropathy. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol, 2024, 25. ArticleID: 85

[19] Gu Y, Han J, Wang W, Zhan Y, Wang H, Hua W, Liu Y, Guo Y, Xue Z, Wang W. Dietary cinnamaldehyde enhances growth performance, digestion, immunity, and lipid metabolism in juvenile fat greenling (Hexagrammos otakii). Aquac Nutr, 2022, 2022: 2132754.

[20] Gu Y, Zhan Y, Guo Y, Hua W, Qi X, Gu Z, Cao S, Chen Y, Xue Z, Wang W, Das P. Potential targets and signaling mechanisms of cinnamaldehyde enhancing intestinal function and nutritional regulation in fat greenling (Hexagrammos otakii). Aquac Nutr, 2024, 2024. ArticleID: 5566739

[21] Guo D, Xie M, Xiao H, Xu L, Zhang S, Chen X, Wu Z. Bacillus subtilis supplementation in a high-fat diet modulates the gut microbiota and ameliorates hepatic lipid accumulation in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Fishes, 2022, 7. ArticleID: 94

[22] Hays KE, Pfaffinger JM, Ryznar R. The interplay between gut microbiota, short-chain fatty acids, and implications for host health and disease. Gut Microbes, 2024, 16. ArticleID: 2393270

[23] Hertli S, Zimmermann P. Molecular interactions between the intestinal microbiota and the host. Mol Microbiol, 2022, 117: 1297-1307.

[24] Hossain MS, Small BC, Kumar V, Hardy R. Utilization of functional feed additives to produce cost-effective, ecofriendly aquafeeds high in plant-based ingredients. Rev Aquacult, 2023, 16: 121-153.

[25] Jia R, Cao L-P, Du J-L, He Q, Gu Z-Y, Jeney G, Xu P, Yin G-J. Effects of high-fat diet on antioxidative status, apoptosis and inflammation in liver of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) via Nrf2, TLRs and JNK pathways. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2020, 104: 391-401.

[26] Jia P-P, Junaid M, Wen P-P, Yang Y-F, Li W-G, Yang X-G, Pei D-S. Role of germ-free animal models in understanding interactions of gut microbiota to host and environmental health: a special reference to zebrafish. Environ Pollut, 2021, 279. ArticleID: 116925

[27] Jia K, Shi P, Zhang L, Yan X, Xu J, Liao K. Trans-cinnamic acid alleviates high-fat diet-induced renal injury via JNK/ERK/P38 MAPK pathway. J Nutr Biochem, 2025, 135. ArticleID: 109769

[28] Jiang Y, Bao H, Ge Y, Tang W, Cheng D, Luo K, Gong G, Gong R. Therapeutic targeting of GSK3β enhances the Nrf2 antioxidant response and confers hepatic cytoprotection in hepatitis C. Gut, 2015, 64: 168-179.

[29] Jin M, Pan T, Tocher DR, Betancor MB, Monroig Ó, Shen Y, Zhu T, Sun P, Jiao L, Zhou Q. Dietary choline supplementation attenuated high-fat diet-induced inflammation through regulation of lipid metabolism and suppression of NFκB activation in juvenile black seabream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii). J Nutr Sci, 2019, 8. ArticleID: e38

[30] Kondera E, Bojarski B, Ługowska K, Kot B, Witeska M. Hematological and hematopoietic effects of bactericidal doses of trans-cinnamaldehyde and thyme oil on Cyprinus carpio juveniles. Front Physiol, 2021, 12. ArticleID: 771243

[31] Kuang Q, Meng D, Zhang Z, Chen X, Teame T, Yang H, Yang Y, Ran C, Li Y, Zhou Z. Preliminary study on ameliorative effects of p-hydroxycinnamic acid on high-fat diet-induced injury in zebrafish. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2025, 165. ArticleID: 110457

[32] Li M, Liang H, Yang H, Ding Q, Xia R, Chen J, Zhou W, Yang Y, Zhang Z, Yao Y, Ran C, Zhou Z. Deciphering the gut microbiome of grass carp through multi-omics approach. Microbiome, 2024, 12. ArticleID: 2

[33] Liang H, Li M, Chen J, Zhou W, Xia D, Ding Q, Yang Y, Zhang Z, Ran C, Zhou Z. The intestinal microbiome and Cetobacterium somerae inhibit viral infection through TLR2-type I IFN signaling axis in zebrafish. Microbiome, 2024, 12: 244.

[34] Lykkesfeldt J. Malondialdehyde as biomarker of oxidative damage to lipids caused by smoking. Clin Chim Acta, 2007, 380: 50-58.

[35] Ma J, Kong L, Zhou S, Lin H, Lin Y, Qin H, Long Z, Liu L, Huang Z, Li Z. Effect of supplementation of chlorogenic acid to high-fat diet on growth, lipid metabolism, intestinal and hepatic histology, and gut microbiota of spotted sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus). Metabolites, 2023, 13. ArticleID: 1067

[36] Meng D, Hao Q, Zhang Q, Yu Z, Liu S, Yang Y, Ran C, Zhang Z, Zhou Z. A compound of paraprobiotic and postbiotic derived from autochthonous microorganisms improved growth performance, epidermal mucus, liver and gut health and gut microbiota of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Aquaculture, 2023, 570. ArticleID: 739378

[37] Meng D, Zhang Z, Teame T, Niemann BE, Xia R, Xu S, Zhao Y, Yang Y, Ran C, Guan LL, Zhou Z. Host‐driven hepatic conversion of gut microbiota‐derived putrescine to spermidine mediates mannose’s protective effects against hepatic steatosis in zebrafish. iMeta, 2025, 5. ArticleID: e70101

[38] Meng D, Zhu X, Teame T, Niemann BE, Zhang R, Yang H, Ran C, Yao Y, Ding Q, Yang Y, Zhang Z, Zhou Z. Butyrate consolidates the positive effects of the mannose–Cetobacterium axis in improving liver and intestinal health of high-fat diet–fed zebrafish. J Nutr, 2026, 156. ArticleID: 101276

[39] Mousa AA, Ramachandran R, Ozdemir O, Karsi A, Abdelhamed H. Dietary trans-cinnamaldehyde improves oxidative stress response of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) following Edwardsiella ictaluri infection. Aquaculture, 2021, 532. ArticleID: 735985

[40] Mu R, Zhang H, Zhang Z, Li X, Ji J, Wang X, Gu Y, Qin X. Trans-cinnamaldehyde loaded chitosan based nanocapsules display antibacterial and antibiofilm effects against cavity-causing Streptococcus mutans. J Oral Microbiol, 2023, 15. ArticleID: 2243067

[41] Naiel MAE, Negm SS, Ghazanfar S, Shukry M, Abdelnour SA. The risk assessment of high-fat diet in farmed fish and its mitigation approaches: a review. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl), 2022, 107: 948-969.

[42] Nazari Soltan Ahmad S, Sanajou D, Kalantary-Charvadeh A, Hosseini V, Roshangar L, Khojastehfard M, Haiaty S, Mesgari-Abbasi M. β-LAPachone ameliorates doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity via regulating autophagy and Nrf2 signalling pathways in mice. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol, 2019, 126: 364-373.

[43] Ngokwe ZB, Wolfoviz-Zilberman A, Sharon E, Zabrovsky A, Beyth N, Houri-Haddad Y, Kesler-Shvero D. Trans-cinnamaldehyde—fighting Streptococcus mutans using nature. Pharmaceutics, 2024, 16. ArticleID: 113

[44] Niture SK, Khatri R, Jaiswal AK. Regulation of Nrf2—an update. Free Radic Biol Med, 2014, 66: 36-44.

[45] Onomu AJ, Okuthe GE. The role of functional feed additives in enhancing aquaculture sustainability. Fishes, 2024, 9: 167.

[46] Park C, Lee H, Hong S, Molagoda IMN, Jeong J-W, Jin C-Y, Kim G-Y, Choi SH, Hong SH, Choi YH. Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory and oxidative responses by trans-cinnamaldehyde in C2C12 myoblasts. Int J Med Sci, 2021, 18: 2480-2492.

[47] Patibandla C, van Aalten L, Dinkova-Kostova AT, Honda T, Cuadrado A, Fernández-Ginés R, McNeilly AD, Hayes JD, Cantley J, Sutherland C. Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 enhances NRF2 protein stability, nuclear localisation and target gene transcription in pancreatic beta cells. Redox Biol, 2024, 71. ArticleID: 103117

[48] Pedroso GL, Hammes TO, Escobar TDC, Fracasso LB, Forgiarini LF, da Silveira TR. Blood collection for biochemical analysis in adult zebrafish. J vis Exp, 2012, 26: e3865

[49] Petsouki E, Cabrera SNS, Heiss EH. AMPK and NRF2: interactive players in the same team for cellular homeostasis?. Free Radic Biol Med, 2022, 190: 75-93.

[50] Pham LN, Kanther M, Semova I, Rawls JF. Methods for generating and colonizing gnotobiotic zebrafish. Nat Protoc, 2008, 3: 1862-1875.

[51] Qi L, Mao H, Lu X, Shi T, Wang J. Cinnamaldehyde promotes the intestinal barrier functions and reshapes gut microbiome in early weaned rats. Front Nutr, 2021, 8. ArticleID: 748503

[52] Ramachandran R, Ford E, Gomaa B, Abdelhamed H. Trans-cinnamaldehyde primes more robust channel catfish immune responses to Edwardsiella ictaluri infection. Pathogens, 2024, 13. ArticleID: 310

[53] Ran C, Qin C, Xie M, Zhang J, Li J, Xie Y, Wang Y, Li S, Liu L, Fu X, Lin Q, Li N, Liles MR, Zhou Z. Aeromonas veronii and aerolysin are important for the pathogenesis of motile aeromonad septicemia in cyprinid fish. Environ Microbiol, 2018, 20: 3442-3456.

[54] Rawls JF, Samuel BS, Gordon JI. Gnotobiotic zebrafish reveal evolutionarily conserved responses to the gut microbiota. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2004, 101: 4596-4601.

[55] Rojo AI, Buttari B, Cadenas S, Carlos AR, Cuadrado A, Falcão AS, López MG, Georgiev MI, Grochot-Przeczek A, Gumeni S, Jimenez-Villegas J, Horbanczuk JO, Konu O, Lastres-Becker I, Levonen A-L, Maksimova V, Michaeloudes C, Mihaylova LV, Mickael ME, Milisav I, et al.. Model organisms for investigating the functional involvement of NRF2 in non-communicable diseases. Redox Biol, 2025, 79. ArticleID: 103464

[56] Ryu J-S, Kang H-Y, Lee JK. Effect of treadmill exercise and trans-cinnamaldehyde against d-galactose- and aluminum chloride-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice. Brain Sci, 2020, 10: 793.

[57] Tan X, Sun Z, Liu Q, Ye H, Zou C, Ye C, Wang A, Lin H. Effects of dietary Ginkgo biloba leaf extract on growth performance, plasma biochemical parameters, fish composition, immune responses, liver histology, and immune and apoptosis-related genes expression of hybrid grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus ♂ × Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀) fed high lipid diets. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2018, 72: 399-409.

[58] Tolas I, Zhou Z, Zhang Z, Teame T, Olsen RE, Ringø E, Rønnestad I. A fishy gut feeling—current knowledge on gut microbiota in teleosts. Front Mar Sci, 2025, 11. ArticleID: 1495373

[59] Usai F, Di Sotto A. Trans-cinnamaldehyde as a novel candidate to overcome bacterial resistance: an overview of in vitro studies. Antibiotics Basel, 2023, 12. ArticleID: 254

[60] Wahyudi IT, Jusadi D, Setiawati M, Ekasari J, Suprayudi MA. Dietary supplementation of cinnamaldehyde positively affects the physiology, feed utilization, growth, and body composition of striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus. Fish Physiol Biochem, 2023, 50: 813-826.

[61] Wang A, Zhang Z, Ding Q, Yang Y, Bindelle J, Ran C, Zhou Z. Intestinal Cetobacterium and acetate modify glucose homeostasis via parasympathetic activation in zebrafish. Gut Microbes, 2021, 13: 1-15.

[62] Wang A, Meng D, Hao Q, Xia R, Zhang Q, Ran C, Yang Y, Li D, Liu W, Zhang Z, Zhou Z. Effect of supplementation of solid-state fermentation product of Bacillus subtilis HGcc-1 to high-fat diet on growth, hepatic lipid metabolism, epidermal mucus, gut and liver health and gut microbiota of zebrafish. Aquaculture, 2022, 560. ArticleID: 738542

[63] Wang X, Li T, Dong L, Li Y, Ding H, Wang J, Xu Y, Sun W, Li L. Exploring the lipid-lowering effects of cinnamic acid and cinnamaldehyde from the perspective of the gut microbiota and metabolites. Food Funct, 2025, 16: 4399-4414.

[64] Wu D, Li J, Fan Z, Wang L, Zheng X. Resveratrol ameliorates oxidative stress, inflammatory response and lipid metabolism in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) fed with high-fat diet. Front Immunol, 2022, 13. ArticleID: 965954

[65] Xie M, Xie Y, Li Y, Zhou W, Zhang Z, Yang Y, Olsen RE, Ringø E, Ran C, Zhou Z. Stabilized fermentation product of Cetobacterium somerae improves gut and liver health and antiviral immunity of zebrafish. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2022, 120: 56-66.

[66] Yang G, Jin T, Yin S, Guo D, Zhang C, Xia X, Shi C. Trans-cinnamaldehyde mitigated intestinal inflammation induced by Cronobacter sakazakii in newborn mice. Food Funct, 2019, 10: 2986-2996.

[67] Yang C, Diarra MS, Choi J, Rodas-Gonzalez A, Lepp D, Liu S, Lu P, Mogire M, Gong J, Wang Q, Yang C. Effects of encapsulated cinnamaldehyde on growth performance, intestinal digestive and absorptive functions, meat quality and gut microbiota in broiler chickens. Transl Anim Sci, 2021, 5. ArticleID: txab099

[68] Zhang X, Rui L, Lv B, Chen F, Cai L. Adiponectin relieves human adult cardiac myocytes injury induced by intermittent hypoxia. Med Sci Monit, 2019, 25: 786-793.

[69] Zhang Z, Ran C, Ding Q, Liu H, Xie M, Yang Y, Xie Y, Gao C, Zhang H, Zhou Z. Ability of prebiotic polysaccharides to activate a HIF1α-antimicrobial peptide axis determines liver injury risk in zebrafish. Commun Biol, 2019, 2: 274.

[70] Zhang F, Luan Y, Hao Q, Zhang Q, Yang Y, Ran C, Zhang Z, Zhou Z. Nuclease treatment enhances the probiotic effect of Bacillus velezensis T23 on hepatic steatosis and inflammation induced by high-fat diet in zebrafish. Aquaculture, 2023, 562. ArticleID: 738801

[71] Zhang X, Yu H, Yan X, Li P, Wang C, Zhang C, Ji H. Selenium reduces hepatopancreas lipid accumulation of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) fed high-fat diet via lipophagy activation. Anim Nutr, 2023, 15: 126-136.

[72] Zhang Z, Li J, Wang G, Ling F. The oral protective efficacy of magnolol against Aeromonas hydrophila and A. veronii infection via enhancing anti-inflammatory ability in goldfish (Carassius auratus). J Fish Dis, 2023, 46: 1413-1423.

[73] Zhang B, Yang H, Cai G, Nie Q, Sun Y. The interactions between the host immunity and intestinal microorganisms in fish. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2024, 108: 30.

[74] Zhang Z, Zhang HL, Yang DH, Hao Q, Yang HW, Meng DL, de Vos MW, Guan LL, Liu SB, Teame T, Gao CC, Ran C, Yang YL, Yao YY, Ding QW, Zhou ZG. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG triggers intestinal epithelium injury in zebrafish revealing host dependent beneficial effects. iMeta, 2024, 3. ArticleID: e181

[75] Zhang L, Yang M, Jiang D, Xiao Z, He Y, Chen W, Lai W, Chen K, Lu L, Xie Y, Liang P, Zhang C, Rao X, Jiang J. Condensed tannin ameliorates intestinal damage and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by high-fat diets in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Int J Biol Macromol, 2025, 311. ArticleID: 143642

[76] Zhou Y, Jiang W-D, Zhang J-X, Feng L, Wu P, Liu Y, Jiang J, Kuang S-Y, Tang L, Peng Y, Zhou X-Q. Cinnamaldehyde improves the growth performance and digestion and absorption capacity in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Fish Physiol Biochem, 2020, 46: 1589-1601.

[77] Zhou Y, Wu P, Jiang W-D, Liu Y, Peng Y, Kuang S-Y, Tang L, Li S-W, Feng L, Zhou X-Q. Dietary cinnamaldehyde improves muscle protein content by promoting muscle fiber growth via PTP1B/IGF1/PI3K/AKTs-TOR/FOXO3a signaling pathway in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Food Chem, 2023, 399. ArticleID: 133799

[78] Zhu R, Liu H, Liu C, Wang L, Ma R, Chen B, Li L, Niu J, Fu M, Zhang D, Gao S. Cinnamaldehyde in diabetes: A review of pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and safety. Pharmacol Res, 2017, 122: 78-89.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Ocean University of China