Phase programming: microstructural design in rechargeable battery materials

Abstract

Single-phase optimization is increasingly insufficient to simultaneously satisfy the demands of rechargeable batteries for high energy density, fast rate capability, and long-term cycling stability. Growing evidence indicates that electrochemical performance is governed not only by chemical composition, but also by the spatial organization and dynamic evolution of multiple coexisting phases. Inspired by gene editing, this review introduces the concept of phase programming, in which crystalline phases, defect-ordered states, and interfacial phases are regarded as editable functional modules. By deliberately inserting, suppressing, reorganizing and spatially reprogramming these phases, electrode properties can be tuned in a programmable manner. Using energy density, rate performance, and cycling stability as guiding metrics, we reinterpret the interactions among functional modules under different modification strategies and their impacts on electrochemical behavior. On this basis, a phase programming design map is constructed, unifying gradient, core-shell, and multiphase architectures within a common physical framework. This framework establishes phase programming as a potentially transferable materials design language for next-generation battery electrodes.

Keywords

Phase programming / battery material / multiphase cathodes

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