Nanoparticle-Mediated Therapy for Glioma: Advances and Prospects

Abstract

Glioma is one of the most invasive tumors in the central nervous system. Traditional treatment is limited by the blood-brain barrier and tumor drug resistance, and the prognosis of patients is very poor. At present, there is a lack of a comprehensive review that can systematically integrate various nanotechnology strategies to meet these challenges. This review first analyzes the brain biological barrier and glioma microenvironment that nanoparticles delivery must overcome. Furthermore, the key strategies for crossing these barriers, such as receptor-mediated transport and physical assistance methods, are systematically reviewed. This paper focuses on the design and characteristics of various nano-platforms (including inorganic, organic and biological nanoparticles), and discusses in detail how they can drive multimodal synergistic therapies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy to improve the curative effect and overcome drug resistance. The purpose of this paper is to provide an integrated perspective for researchers in the field to overcome the delivery barrier and realize innovative therapy by nanotechnology, and to provide a theoretical framework and design ideas for promoting the clinical transformation of the next generation of intelligent and personalized nano-drugs for glioma.

Keywords

Blood-Brain Barrier / Drug Delivery Systems / Glioma / Nanoparticles / Tumor therapy

References

[1] C. Printz, “Radiotherapy Followed by Adjuvant Temozolomide Improves Survival for Patients With Aggressive Idh-Mutated Anaplastic Glioma,” CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 76, no. 2 (2026): e70078.

[2] K. R. Taylor, T. Barron, A. Hui, et al., “Glioma Synapses Recruit Mechanisms of Adaptive Plasticity,” Nature 623, no. 7986 (2023): 366–374.

[3] A. Sejda, W. Grajkowska, J. Trubicka, et al., “Who CNS5 2021 Classification of Gliomas: A Practical Review and Road Signs for Diagnosing Pathologists and Proper Patho-Clinical and Neuro-Oncological Cooperation,” Folia Neuropathologica 60, no. 2 (2022): 137–152.

[4] F. Davodabadi, S. F. Sajjadi, M. Sarhadi, et al., “Cancer Chemotherapy Resistance: Mechanisms and Recent Breakthrough in Targeted Drug Delivery,” European Journal of Pharmacology 958 (2023): 176013.

[5] G. Singh, J. H. Rees, and J. W. Sander, “Seizures and Epilepsy in Oncological Practice: Causes, Course, Mechanisms and Treatment,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 78, no. 4 (2006): 342–349.

[6] Q. T. Ostrom, N. Patil, G. Cioffi, K. Waite, C. Kruchko, and J. S. Barnholtz-Sloan, “Cbtrus Statistical Report: Primary Brain and Other Central Nervous System Tumors Diagnosed in the United States in 2013-2017,” Neuro-Oncology 22 (2020): 1–96.

[7] C. Pang and Y. Wang, “The Immunosuppressive Microenvironment of Glioblastoma: Mechanisms, Clinical Challenges and Future Directions,” Immunology 177, no. 4 (2026): 662–673.

[8] C. Huang, X. Xin, X. Hao, et al., “Construction of a Whole-Brain Panorama for Glioma Vasculature Reveals Tumor Heterogeneity and Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption,” Science Advances 11, no. 30 (2025): eadw8330.

[9] C. Domingues, A. Santos, C. Alvarez-Lorenzo, et al., “Where Is Nano Today and Where Is It Headed? A Review of Nanomedicine and the Dilemma of Nanotoxicology,” ACS Nano 16, no. 7 (2022): 9994–10041.

[10] K. B. Ramadi, Y. A. Mohamed, A. Al-Sbiei, et al., “Acute Systemic Exposure to Silver-Based Nanoparticles Induces Hepatotoxicity and NLRP3-dependent Inflammation,” Nanotoxicology 10, no. 8 (2016): 1061–1074.

[11] L. Gao, X. Deng, F. Xu, W. Xu, and H. She, inventors; Shenzhen Inst Advanced Technology (Caat-C) Shenzhen Inst Advanced Technology (Caat-C), assignee. Preparing Gold Cage Nanomaterial Coated With Immune Cell Membrane Useful for Drug Delivery For Glioma And Other Solid Tumors, Comprises Coating Cell Membrane Of Immune Cell With Gold Cage Nanoparticles. Patent WO2024108658-A1; CN118059060-A.

[12] E. Varon, G. Blumrosen, and O. Shefi, “A Predictive Model for Personalization of Nanotechnology-Based Phototherapy in Cancer Treatment,” Frontiers in Oncology 12 (2023): 1037419.

[13] A. Dasgupta, T. Sun, E. Rama, et al., “Transferrin Receptor-Targeted Nonspherical Microbubbles for Blood-Brain Barrier Sonopermeation,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 52 (2023): e2308150.

[14] Y. Wu, S. Wan, S. Yang, et al., “Macrophage Cell Membrane-Based Nanoparticles: A New Promising Biomimetic Platform for Targeted Delivery and Treatment,” Journal of Nanobiotechnology 20, no. 1 (2022): 542.

[15] R. Liang, C. Wu, S. Liu, and W. Zhao, “Targeting interleukin-13 Receptor α2 (IL-13Rα2) for Glioblastoma Therapy With Surface Functionalized Nanocarriers,” Drug Delivery 29, no. 1 (2022): 1620–1630.

[16] C. Wei, W. Jiang, R. Wang, et al., “Brain Endothelial Gsdmd Activation Mediates Inflammatory Bbb Breakdown,” Nature 629, no. 8013 (2024): 893–900.

[17] J. Kong, R. Zou, G. L. Law, and Y. Wang, “Biomimetic Multifunctional Persistent Luminescence Nanoprobes for Long-Term Near-Infrared Imaging and Therapy of Cerebral and Cerebellar Gliomas,” Science Advances 8, no. 10 (2022): eabm7077.

[18] Y. Zi, K. Yang, J. He, Z. Wu, J. Liu, and W. Zhang, “Strategies to Enhance Drug Delivery to Solid Tumors by Harnessing the Epr Effects and Alternative Targeting Mechanisms,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 188 (2022): 114449.

[19] R. Sun, J. Xiang, Q. Zhou, et al., “The Tumor Epr Effect for Cancer Drug Delivery: Current Status, Limitations, and Alternatives,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 191 (2022): 114614.

[20] K. Lin, S. E. Gueble, R. K. Sundaram, E. D. Huseman, R. S. Bindra, and S. B. Herzon, “Mechanism-Based Design of Agents That Selectively Target Drug-Resistant Glioma,” Science 377, no. 6605 (2022): 502–511.

[21] H. Tamagawa, M. Fujii, K. Togasaki, et al., “Wnt-Deficient and Hypoxic Environment Orchestrates Squamous Reprogramming of Human Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma,” Nature Cell Biology 26, no. 10 (2024): 1759–1772.

[22] H. Cheng, Y. Qiu, Y. Xu, et al., “Extracellular Acidosis Restricts One-Carbon Metabolism and Preserves T Cell Stemness,” Nature Metabolism 5, no. 2 (2023): 314–330.

[23] J. Yin, X. Wang, X. Ge, et al., “Hypoxanthine Phosphoribosyl Transferase 1 Metabolizes Temozolomide to Activate Ampk for Driving Chemoresistance of Glioblastomas,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 5913.

[24] M. M. Patel and B. M. Patel, “Crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier: Recent Advances in Drug Delivery to the Brain,” CNS Drugs 31, no. 2 (2017): 109–133.

[25] M. A. Rajora, L. Ding, M. Valic, et al., “Correction: Tailored Theranostic Apolipoprotein E3 Porphyrin-Lipid Nanoparticles Target Glioblastoma,” (vol 8, pg 5371, 2017) Chemical Science 8, no. 8 (2017): 5803.

[26] D. Sang, X. Luo, and J. Liu, “Biological Interaction and Imaging of Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles,” Nano-Micro Letters 16, no. 1 (2024): 44.

[27] C. E. Callmann, M. K. Vasher, A. Das, C. D. Kusmierz, and C. A. Mirkin, “In Vivo Behavior of Ultrasmall Spherical Nucleic Acids,” Small 19, no. 24 (2023): 2300097.

[28] R. Ran, S. Guo, X. Jiang, et al., “A Cell-Penetrating Peptide Modified Cu₂-Xse/Au Nanohybrid With Enhanced Efficacy for Combined Radio-Photothermal Therapy,” Molecules 28, no. 1 (2023): 423.

[29] S. Lakkadwala and J. Singh, “Co-Delivery of Doxorubicin and Erlotinib Through Liposomal Nanoparticles for Glioblastoma Tumor Regression Using An In Vitro Brain Tumor Model,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 173 (2019): 27–35.

[30] A. C. Yang, M. Y. Stevens, M. B. Chen, et al., “Physiological Blood-Brain Transport Is Impaired With Age by a Shift in Transcytosis,” Nature 583, no. 7816 (2020): 425–430.

[31] W. Xiao, Y. Wang, H. Zhang, et al., “The Protein Corona Hampers the Transcytosis of Transferrin-Modified Nanoparticles Through Blood-Brain Barrier and Attenuates Their Targeting Ability to Brain Tumor,” Biomaterials 274 (2021): 120888.

[32] Z. Zhen, W. Tang, H. Chen, et al., “Rgd-Modified Apoferritin Nanoparticles for Efficient Drug Delivery to Tumors,” ACS Nano 7, no. 6 (2013): 4830–4837.

[33] E. Ruoslahti and M. D. Pierschbacher, “New Perspectives IN Cell-Adhesion - Rgd AND Integrins,” Science 238, no. 4826 (1987): 491–497.

[34] F. Danhier, A. Le Breton, and V. Préat, “Rgd-Based Strategies To Target Alpha(V) Beta(3) Integrin in Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis,” Molecular Pharmaceutics 9, no. 11 (2012): 2961–2973.

[35] R. Zhao, S. Dong, D. Wu, et al., “A Drug Delivery to Improve Prognosis of Traumatic Brain Injury Mice Through Mouse-Derived Nerve Growth Factor Coated by a Nanoparticle,” CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics 31, no. 10 (2025): e70603.

[36] E. Kowolik, D. Szczygieł, M. Szczygieł, et al., “Preclinical Photodynamic Therapy Targeting Blood Vessels With Aguix^® Theranostic Nanoparticles,” Cancers 16, no. 23 (2024): 3924.

[37] Y. Meng, R. M. Reilly, R. C. Pezo, et al., “Mr-Guided Focused Ultrasound Enhances Delivery of Trastuzumab to Her2-positive Brain Metastases,” Science Translational Medicine 13, no. 615 (2021): eabj4011.

[38] C. Gasca-Salas, B. Fernández-Rodríguez, J. A. Pineda-Pardo, et al., “Blood-Brain Barrier Opening With Focused Ultrasound in Parkinson's Disease Dementia,” Nature Communications 12, no. 1 (2021): 779.

[39] K. T. Chen, W. Y. Chai, Y. J. Lin, et al., “Neuronavigation-Guided Focused Ultrasound for Transcranial Blood-Brain Barrier Opening and Immunostimulation in Brain Tumors,” Science Advances 7, no. 6 (2021): eabd0772.

[40] L. Qiao, Y. Qin, Y. Wang, et al., “A Brain Glioma Gene Delivery Strategy by angiopep-2 and Tat-Modified Magnetic Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles,” RSC Advances 10, no. 68 (2020): 41471–41481.

[41] D. E. Tylawsky, H. Kiguchi, J. Vaynshteyn, et al., “P-Selectin-Targeted Nanocarriers Induce Active Crossing of the Blood-Brain Barrier via caveolin-1-dependent Transcytosis,” Nature Materials 22, no. 3 (2023): 391–399.

[42] S. Senapati, A. K. Mahanta, S. Kumar, and P. Maiti, “Controlled Drug Delivery Vehicles for Cancer Treatment and Their Performance,” Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy 3 (2018): 7.

[43] J. Gao, Q. Song, X. Gu, et al., “Intracerebral Fate of Organic and Inorganic Nanoparticles Is Dependent on Microglial Extracellular Vesicle Function,” Nature Nanotechnology 19, no. 3 (2024): 376–386.

[44] P. Liu, Z. Huang, Z. Chen, et al., “Silver Nanoparticles: A Novel Radiation Sensitizer for Glioma?,” Nanoscale 5, no. 23 (2013): 11829–11836.

[45] R. Yang, Q. Gao, B. Zhang, et al., “Macrophage Membrane-Camouflaged Chitosan Nanogels Loaded With Ultrasmall Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Enable Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Orthotopic Glioma,” ACS Applied Polymer Materials 7, no. 22 (2025): 15572–15580.

[46] R. Gómez-Herrera, P. Alfonso-Triguero, X. Mao, et al., “Bioinspired Neuromelanin-Like Pt(Iv) Polymeric Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment,” Nanotechnology Reviews 13, no. 1 (2024): 20240118.

[47] D. Amir, A. Hendler-Neumark, V. Wulf, R. Ehrlich, and G. Bisker, “Oncometabolite Fingerprinting Using Fluorescent Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 9, no. 4 (2022): 2101591.

[48] H. Zhu, X. Ni, J. Su, et al., “Multifunctional Mesoporous Silicon Nanoparticles for Mri-Based Diagnostic Imaging and Glioma Therapy,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 17, no. 18 (2025): 26416–26430.

[49] P. Zhang, M. Jiao, Y. Li, X. Ding, K. J. McHugh, and L. Jing, “Bright Semiconductor Quantum Dots Shed New Light on Precision Nanomedicine for Various Diseases,” Small Science 4, no. 1 (2024): 2300081.

[50] Q. Zhou, Q. Fu, S. Li, Y. Kugeluke, Y. Sun, and Z. Sun, “Chitosan-Coated Copper Sulfide Liposomes Enhance Chemo/Immuno/Chemodynamic Therapy via Enhanced Ferroptosis-Mediated Glioma Cell Death,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 354 (2026): 151193.

[51] K. Zhang, G. Zhao, H. Zhang, Y. Shi, Y. Liu, and Y. Li, “Block Copolymer Micelles Based on Tmz Conjugate for Controlled Drug Delivery of Doxorubicin,” Materials Today Communications 49 (2025): 114396.

[52] J. Wang, Z. Wang, G. Zhang, et al., “Blood-Brain Barrier-Crossing Dendrimers for Glioma Theranostics,” Biomaterials Science 12, no. 6 (2024): 1346–1356.

[53] Z. Jiang, H. Zhang, W. Zhang, et al., “Smart Platelet-Based Biohybrid Delivery System for Magnetic-Guided Targeted Delivery and Enhanced Photothermal-Chemo Therapy Against Glioma,” Nano Today 56 (2024): 102295.

[54] P. Rahmani, M. Fakhri, A. Aghajani, et al., “Engineered Exosomes for Targeted Glioma Therapy: Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier With Nature-Inspired Nanocarriers,” Discover Nano 21, no. 1 (2026): 87.

[55] S. Gao, H. Tian, Z. Xing, et al., “A Non-Viral Suicide Gene Delivery System Traversing the Blood Brain Barrier for Non-Invasive Glioma Targeting Treatment,” Journal of Controlled Release 243 (2016): 357–369.

[56] C. Y. Dong, Q. X. Huang, H. Cheng, et al., “Neisseria meningitidis Opca Protein/MnO₂ Hybrid Nanoparticles for Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier to Treat Glioblastoma,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 12 (2022): 2109213.

[57] M. Ozcan, Z. Guo, C. Valenzuela Ripoll, et al., “Sustained Alternate-Day Fasting Potentiates Doxorubicin Cardiotoxicity,” Cell Metabolism 35, no. 6 (2023): 928–942.e4.

[58] R. Sheervalilou, S. Khoei, S. Khoee, et al., “Magnetohyperthermia-Synergistic Glioma Cancer Therapy Enabled by Magnetic Graphene Oxide Nanoheaters: Promising Nanostructure for In Vitro and In Vivo Applications,” Cancer Nanotechnology 14, no. 1 (2023): 44.

[59] M. Fatima, G. Gupta, S. Arora, A. Alsayari, S. Wahab, and P. Kesharwani, “Scouting the Efficacy of Targeted Gold Nanoparticles in the Landscape of Cancer Therapy,” European Polymer Journal 209 (2024): 112924.

[60] M. N. Patel, S. Tiwari, Y. Wang, et al., “Safer Non-Viral Dna Delivery Using Lipid Nanoparticles Loaded With Endogenous Anti-Inflammatory Lipids,” Nature Biotechnology 44 (2026): 79–89.

[61] D. L. Sellers, J. K. Y. Tan, J. M. B. Pineda, et al., “Targeting Ligands Deliver Model Drug Cargo into the Central Nervous System Along Autonomic Neurons,” ACS Nano 13, no. 10 (2019): 10961–10971.

[62] P. Kumthekar, C. H. Ko, T. Paunesku, et al., “A First-In-Human Phase 0 Clinical Study of Rna Interference-Based Spherical Nucleic Acids in Patients With Recurrent Glioblastoma,” Science Translational Medicine 13, no. 584 (2021): eabb3945.

[63] G. Fitzgerald, D. Low, L. Morgan, et al., “Controlled Release of DNA Binding Anticancer Drugs From Gold Nanoparticles With Near-Infrared Radiation,” Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 112, no. 4 (2023): 1064–1071.

[64] Y. Yu, A. Wang, S. Wang, et al., “Efficacy of Temozolomide-Conjugated Gold Nanoparticle Photothermal Therapy of Drug-Resistant Glioblastoma and Its Mechanism Study,” Molecular Pharmaceutics 19, no. 4 (2022): 1219–1229.

[65] A. Guglielmelli, P. Rosa, M. Contardi, et al., “Biomimetic Keratin Gold Nanoparticle-Mediated In Vitro Photothermal Therapy on Glioblastoma Multiforme,” Nanomedicine 16, no. 2 (2021): 121–138.

[66] X. Kan, J. Ma, J. Ma, et al., “Dual-Targeted TfRA4-DNA1-Ag@AuNPs: An Innovative Radiosensitizer for Enhancing Radiotherapy in Glioblastoma Multiforme,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 245 (2025): 114328.

[67] M. Mohd Faheem, M. Bhagat, P. Sharma, and R. Anand, “Induction of p53 Mediated Mitochondrial Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in Human Breast Cancer Cells by Plant Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles From Bergenia Ligulata (Whole Plant),” International Journal of Pharmaceutics 619 (2022): 121710.

[68] R. R. Miranda, A. C. S. Oliveira, L. Skytte, K. L. Rasmussen, and F. Kjeldsen, “Proteome-Wide Analysis Reveals Molecular Pathways Affected by Agnp in a Ros-Dependent Manner,” Nanotoxicology 16, no. 1 (2022): 73–87.

[69] A. V. Vakhrusheva, A. V. Murashko, E. S. Trifonova, Y. M. Efremov, P. S. Timashev, and O. S. Sokolova, “Role of Actin-Binding Proteins in the Regulation of Cellular Mechanics,” European Journal of Cell Biology 101, no. 3 (2022): 151241.

[70] A. Kefayat, F. Ghahremani, H. Motaghi, and A. Amouheidari, “Ultra-Small but Ultra-Effective: Folic Acid-Targeted Gold Nanoclusters for Enhancement of Intracranial Glioma Tumors' Radiation Therapy Efficacy,” Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 16 (2019): 173–184.

[71] X. Huang, T. He, X. Liang, et al., “Advances and Applications of Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy,” MedComm – Oncology 3 (2024): e67.

[72] V. Chandrakala, V. Aruna, and G. Angajala, “Review on Metal Nanoparticles as Nanocarriers: Current Challenges and Perspectives in Drug Delivery Systems,” Emergent Materials 5, no. 6 (2022): 1593–1615.

[73] T. Zhang, Z. Wang, H. Xiang, X. Xu, J. Zou, and C. Lu, “Biocompatible Superparamagnetic Europium-Doped Iron Oxide Nanoparticle Clusters as Multifunctional Nanoprobes for Multimodal In Vivo Imaging,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 29 (2021): 33850–33861.

[74] D. De Pasquale, C. Pucci, A. Desii, et al., “A Novel Patient-Personalized Nanovector Based on Homotypic Recognition and Magnetic Hyperthermia for An Efficient Treatment of Glioblastoma Multiforme,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 12, no. 19 (2023): e2203120.

[75] D. Zhao, S. Peng, H. Xiao, et al., “High-Performance T1 - T2 Dual-Modal Mri Contrast Agents Through Interface Engineering,” ACS Applied Bio Materials 6, no. 6 (2023): 2137–2144.

[76] J. Meng, P. Zhang, Q. Chen, et al., “Two-Pronged Intracellular Co-Delivery of Antigen and Adjuvant for Synergistic Cancer Immunotherapy,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 21 (2022): 2202168.

[77] N. Rarokar, S. Yadav, S. Saoji, et al., “Magnetic Nanosystem a Tool for Targeted Delivery and Diagnostic Application: Current Challenges and Recent Advancement,” International Journal of Pharmaceutics: X 7 (2024): 100231.

[78] C. Fu, X. Duan, M. Cao, et al., “Targeted Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Modulation of Hypoxia With Multifunctional Hyaluronic Acid-Mno₂ Nanoparticles in Glioma,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 8, no. 10 (2019): 1900047.

[79] Y. Q. Meng, Y. N. Shi, Y. P. Zhu, et al., “Recent Trends in Preparation and Biomedical Applications of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles,” Journal of Nanobiotechnology 22, no. 1 (2024): 24.

[80] Z. Shen, T. Liu, Y. Li, et al., “Fenton-Reaction-Acceleratable Magnetic Nanoparticles for Ferroptosis Therapy of Orthotopic Brain Tumors,” ACS Nano 12, no. 11 (2018): 11355–11365.

[81] J. H. Fang, T. L. Chiu, W. C. Huang, et al., “Dual-Targeting Lactoferrin-Conjugated Polymerized Magnetic Polydiacetylene-Assembled Nanocarriers With Self-Responsive Fluorescence/Magnetic Resonance Imaging for In Vivo Brain Tumor Therapy,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 5, no. 6 (2016): 688–695.

[82] M. Shen, Y. Wang, T. Bing, Y. Tang, X. Liu, and Y. Yu, “Alendronate Triggered Dual-Cascade Targeting Prodrug Nanoparticles for Enhanced Tumor Penetration and Sting Activation of Osteosarcoma,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 49 (2023): 2307013.

[83] E. K. H. Chow and D. Ho, “Cancer Nanomedicine: From Drug Delivery to Imaging,” Science Translational Medicine 5, no. 216 (2013): 216rv4.

[84] Y. Zou, Y. Wang, S. Xu, et al., “Brain Co-Delivery of Temozolomide and Cisplatin for Combinatorial Glioblastoma Chemotherapy,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 33 (2022): e2203958.

[85] Y. Bi, L. Liu, Y. Lu, et al., “T7 Peptide-Functionalized Peg-Plga Micelles Loaded With Carmustine for Targeting Therapy of Glioma,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 41 (2016): 27465–27473.

[86] A. Li, T. Zhang, T. Huang, et al., “Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Promote Cx43-Overexpression of Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Efficient Suicide Gene Therapy During Glioma Treatment,” Theranostics 11, no. 17 (2021): 8254–8269.

[87] G. Liu, H. Shen, J. Mao, et al., “Transferrin Modified Graphene Oxide for Glioma-Targeted Drug Delivery: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluations,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 5, no. 15 (2013): 6909–6914.

[88] Q. Li, X. Lin, Y. Fan, et al., “Dual-Sonosensitizer Loaded Phase-Transition Nanoparticles With Tumor-Targeting for Synergistically Enhanced Sonodynamic Therapy,” Biomaterials Science 9, no. 18 (2021): 6126–6141.

[89] G. B. Heggannavar, S. Vijeth, and M. Y. Kariduraganavar, “Development of Dual Drug Loaded Plga Based Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles and Their Conjugation With Angiopep-2 to Treat Glioma,” Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology 53 (2019): 101157.

[90] D. Li, X. Yang, B. Li, et al., “Lidocaine Liposome Modified With Folic Acid Suppresses the Proliferation and Motility of Glioma Cells via Targeting the PI3K/AKT Pathway,” Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 22, no. 3 (2021): 1025.

[91] C. L. Yang, L. N. Wang, P. Yin, et al., “Sulfur-Anchoring Synthesis of Platinum Intermetallic Nanoparticle Catalysts for Fuel Cells,” Science 374, no. 6566 (2021): 459–464.

[92] J. Liu, J. Huang, L. Zhang, and J. Lei “Multi Functional Metal—Organic Framework Hetero Structures for Enhanced Cancer Therapy,” Chemical Society Reviews 50, no. 22 (2022): 1188–1218.

[93] X. Su, Y. Yang, C. Guo, et al., “NOX4-Derived Ros Mediates TGF-β1-Induced Metabolic Reprogramming During Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Through the PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α Pathway in Glioblastoma,” Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2021 (2021): 5549047.

[94] G. Tarricone, V. Castagnola, V. Mastronardi, et al., “Catalytic Bioswitch of Platinum Nanozymes: Mechanistic Insights of Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging in the Neurovascular Unit,” Nano Letters 23, no. 10 (2023): 4660–4668.

[95] Y. Sun, J. L. Nitiss, and Y. Pommier, “Editorial: The Repair of Dna-Protein Crosslinks,” Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences 10 (2023): 1203479.

[96] J. S. Yang, E. T. Huang, K. Y. Liao, et al., “Artificial Intelligence-Driven Prediction and Validation of Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion Profiles in Natural Product Research Laboratory Compounds,” Biomedicine/[publiée pour l'A.A.I.C.I.G.] 14, no. 4 (2024): 82–91.

[97] D. P. Wang, J. Shen, C. Y. Qin, et al., “Platinum Nanoparticles Promote Breast Cancer Cell Metastasis by Disrupting Endothelial Barrier and Inducing Intravasation and Extravasation,” Nano Research 15, no. 8 (2022): 7366–7377.

[98] S. Shityakov, G. Pastorin, C. Foerster, and E. Salvador, “Blood&Ndash;Brain Barrier Transport Studies, Aggregation, and Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Functionalized With Fluorescein Isothiocyanate,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 10 (2015): 1703–1713.

[99] J. Ren, S. Shen, D. Wang, et al., “The Targeted Delivery of Anticancer Drugs to Brain Glioma by Pegylated Oxidized Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Modified With Angiopep-2,” Biomaterials 33, no. 11 (2012): 3324–3333.

[100] R. Cui, J. Li, H. Huang, et al., “Novel Carbon Nanohybrids as Highly Efficient Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agents,” Nano Research 8, no. 4 (2015): 1259–1268.

[101] M. Ramezani Farani, M. Koohkhezri, I. Zare, et al., “Functionalized Carbon Nanostructures for Medical Diagnosis.” in Handbook of Functionalized Carbon Nanostructures: From Synthesis Methods to Applications. Springer International Publishing, eds. A. Barhoum, K. Deshmukh, (2023), 1–33.

[102] H. Dong, M. Jin, Z. Liu, et al., “In Vitro and In Vivo Brain-Targeting Chemo-Photothermal Therapy Using Graphene Oxide Conjugated With Transferrin for Gliomas,” Lasers in Medical Science 31, no. 6 (2016): 1123–1131.

[103] W. Shi, Q. Han, J. Wu, et al., “Synthesis Mechanisms, Structural Models, and Photothermal Therapy Applications of Top-Down Carbon Dots From Carbon Powder, Graphite, Graphene, and Carbon Nanotubes,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 3 (2022): 1456.

[104] E. Ortiz-Islas, A. Sosa-Arróniz, M. E. Manríquez-Ramírez, C. E. Rodríguez-Pérez, F. Tzompantzi, and J. M. Padilla, “Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Functionalized With Folic Acid for Targeted Release Cis-Pt to Glioblastoma Cells,” Reviews on Advanced Materials Science 60, no. 1 (2021): 25–37.

[105] Z. A. Chen, C. H. Wu, S. H. Wu, et al., “Receptor Ligand-Free Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: A Streamlined Strategy for Targeted Drug Delivery Across the Blood-Brain Barrier,” ACS Nano 18, no. 20 (2024): 12716–12736.

[106] J. Mo, L. He, B. Ma, and T. Chen, “Tailoring Particle Size of Mesoporous Silica Nanosystem To Antagonize Glioblastoma and Overcome Blood-Brain Barrier,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 11 (2016): 6811–6825.

[107] S. Shin, H. Jo, T. Agura, et al., “Use of Surface-Modified Porous Silicon Nanoparticles to Deliver Temozolomide With Enhanced Pharmacokinetic and Therapeutic Efficacy for Intracranial Glioblastoma in Mice,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 12, no. 37 (2024): 9335–9344.

[108] L. He, H. Lai, and T. Chen, “Dual-Function Nanosystem for Synergetic Cancer Chemo-/Radiotherapy Through Ros-Mediated Signaling Pathways,” Biomaterials 51 (2015): 30–42.

[109] Q. Jin and Q. Pan, “Nanoprodrugs Encapsulated With Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Combined With Photothermal Therapy for the Treatment and Care of Gastric Cancer,” Materials Research Express 9, no. 11 (2022): 115010.

[110] H. Fei, Y. Jin, N. Jiang, et al., “Gint4.T-siHDGF Chimera-Capped Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Encapsulating Temozolomide for Synergistic Glioblastoma Therapy,” Biomaterials 306 (2024): 122479.

[111] E. Alhomaidi, P. Faris, H. Saja, A. T. Jalil, M. M. Saleh, and M. Khatami, “Soil-Bacteria-Mediated Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Ceramic Nanostructure,” Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali 34, no. 1 (2023): 169–177.

[112] I. Roy, T. Y. Ohulchanskyy, H. E. Pudavar, et al., “Ceramic-Based Nanoparticles Entrapping Water-Insoluble Photosensitizing Anticancer Drugs: A Novel Drug-Carrier System for Photodynamic Therapy,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 125, no. 26 (2003): 7860–7865.

[113] J. J. Hao, D. Hu, P. X. Chen, et al., “Enantioselective Theranostics of Brain Glioma Using Chiral Quantum Structures,” Materials & Design 226 (2023): 111653.

[114] M. Ge, F. Jiang, and H. Lin, “Nanocatalytic Medicine Enabled Next-Generation Therapeutics for Bacterial Infections,” Materials Today Bio 29 (2024): 101255.

[115] S. Tian, J. Xu, X. Qiao, et al., “Cuo Nanoparticles for Glioma Treatment In Vitro and In Vivo,” Scientific Reports 14, no. 1 (2024): 23229.

[116] D. E. Large, R. G. Abdelmessih, E. A. Fink, and D. T. Auguste, “Liposome Composition in Drug Delivery Design, Synthesis, Characterization, and Clinical Application,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 176 (2021): 113851.

[117] J. Yang, Z. Shi, R. Liu, Y. Wu, and X. Zhang, “Combined-Therapeutic Strategies Synergistically Potentiate Glioblastoma Multiforme Treatment via Nanotechnology,” Theranostics 10, no. 7 (2020): 3223–3239.

[118] D. Li, J. Gao, C. Yang, et al., “Crgdyk-Modified Procaine Liposome Inhibits the Proliferation and Motility of Glioma Cells via the ERK/p38MAPK Pathway,” Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 22, no. 2 (2021): 859.

[119] H. Tang, Y. Xue, B. Li, et al., “Membrane-Camouflaged Supramolecular Nanoparticles for Co-Delivery of Chemotherapeutic and Molecular-Targeted Drugs With Sirna Against Patient-Derived Pancreatic Carcinoma,” Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B 12, no. 8 (2022): 3410–3426.

[120] M. E. Nik, M. R. Jaafari, M. Mashreghi, et al., “The Effect of Rgd-Targeted and Non-Targeted Liposomal Galbanic Acid on the Therapeutic Efficacy of Pegylated Liposomal Doxorubicin: From Liposomal Preparation to In-Vivo Studies,” International Journal of Pharmaceutics 604 (2021): 120710.

[121] D. Kong, W. Hong, M. Yu, Y. Li, Y. Zheng, and X. Ying, “Multifunctional Targeting Liposomes of Epirubicin Plus Resveratrol Improved Therapeutic Effect on Brain Gliomas,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 17 (2022): 1087–1110.

[122] P. Sun, Y. Xiao, Q. Di, et al., “Transferrin Receptor-Targeted Peg-Pla Polymeric Micelles for Chemotherapy Against Glioblastoma Multiforme,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 15 (2020): 6673–6687.

[123] T. Miller, A. Hill, S. Uezguen, M. Weigandt, and A. Goepferich, “Analysis of Immediate Stress Mechanisms Upon Injection of Polymeric Micelles and Related Colloidal Drug Carriers: Implications on Drug Targeting,” Biomacromolecules 13, no. 6 (2012): 1707–1718.

[124] S. Kang, S. Lee, and S. Park, “Irgd Peptide as a Tumor-Penetrating Enhancer for Tumor-Targeted Drug Delivery,” Polymers 12, no. 9 (2020): 1906.

[125] L. Lu, X. Zhao, T. Fu, et al., “An Irgd-Conjugated Prodrug Micelle With Blood-Brain-Barrier Penetrability for Anti-Glioma Therapy,” Biomaterials 230 (2020): 119666.

[126] J. Hu, K. Hu, and Y. Cheng, “Tailoring the Dendrimer Core for Efficient Gene Delivery,” Acta Biomaterialia 35 (2016): 1–11.

[127] M. Erduran, N. Çankaya, and S. Yalcin, “Biobased Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery.” in Biobased Nanomaterials: Applications in Biomedicine, Food Industry, Agriculture, and Environmental Sustainability, ed. S. Ahmed (Springer Nature Singapore, 2024), 173–222.

[128] X. Liu, D. Dhumal, P. Santofimia-Castaño, et al., “Self-Assembling Dendrimer Nanodrug Formulations for Decreased Herg-Related Toxicity and Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy,” Science Advances 11, no. 26 (2025): eadu9948.

[129] S. Baudis, T. Roch, M. Balk, C. Wischke, A. Lendlein, and M. Behl, “Multivariate Analysis of Cellular Uptake Characteristics for a (Co)Polymer Particle Library,” ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering 10, no. 3 (2024): 1481–1493.

[130] Y. Li, H. He, X. Jia, W. L. Lu, J. Lou, and Y. Wei, “A Dual-Targeting Nanocarrier Based on Poly(Amidoamine) Dendrimers Conjugated With Transferrin and Tamoxifen for Treating Brain Gliomas,” Biomaterials 33, no. 15 (2012): 3899–3908.

[131] M. Chawla, R. D. Kaushik, J. Singh, and Manila, “Optimization and Computational Studies Evaluating Molecular Dynamics of Eda Cored Polymeric Dendrimer,” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020): 21977.

[132] Z. Zhu, Y. Zhai, Y. Hao, et al., “Specific Anti-Glioma Targeted-Delivery Strategy of Engineered Small Extracellular Vesicles Dual-Functionalised by Angiopep-2 and Tat Peptides,” Journal of Extracellular Vesicles 11, no. 8 (2022): e12255.

[133] Y. Zhou, L. Wang, L. Chen, et al., “Glioblastoma Cell-Derived Exosomes Functionalized With Peptides as Efficient Nanocarriers for Synergistic Chemotherapy of Glioblastoma With Improved Biosafety,” Nano Research 16, no. 12 (2023): 13283–13293.

[134] T. Yang, N. Zhang, Y. Liu, et al., “Nanoplatelets Modified With Rvg for Targeted Delivery of miR-375 and Temozolomide to Enhance Gliomas Therapy,” Journal of Nanobiotechnology 22, no. 1 (2024): 623.

[135] W. Matsunaga, M. Ichikawa, T. Ishikawa, and A. Gotoh, “Lentiviral Vector-Mediated Transfection of Human Cancer Cell Lines With Tumor Suppressor Genes Inhibits Proliferation In Vitro,” Personalized Medicine Universe 9 (2020): 38–41.

[136] T. M. Rodgers, N. Muzzio, A. Valero, et al., “Poly(β-amino Ester) Nanoparticles Modified With a Rabies-Virus-Derived Peptide for the Delivery of Ascl1 Across a 3D In Vitro Model of the Blood-Brain Barrier,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 6, no. 7 (2023): 6299–6311.

[137] H. Miletic, Y. H. Fischer, H. Neumann, et al., “Selective Transduction of Malignant Glioma by Lentiviral Vectors Pseudotyped With Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Glycoproteins,” Human Gene Therapy 15, no. 11 (2004): 1091–1100.

[138] Y. Wang, L. Zhou, L. Fang, and F. Cao, “Multifunctional Carboxymethyl Chitosan Derivatives-Layered Double Hydroxide Hybrid Nanocomposites for Efficient Drug Delivery to the Posterior Segment of the Eye,” Acta Biomaterialia 104 (2020): 104–114.

[139] B. N. Kerr, D. Duffy, C. E. McInerney, et al., “Evaluation of Radiosensitization and Cytokine Modulation by Differentially Pegylated Gold Nanoparticles in Glioblastoma Cells,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 12 (2023): 10032.

[140] L. Wang, T. Pan, Y. Wang, et al., “Effect of Nanoparticles of Dox and miR-125b on Dna Damage Repair in Glioma U251 Cells and Underlying Mechanisms,” Molecules 27, no. 19 (2022): 6201.

[141] D. Kim, Q. V. Le, Y. Wu, J. Park, and Y. K. Oh, “Nanovesicle-Mediated Delivery Systems for Crispr/Cas Genome Editing,” Pharmaceutics 12, no. 12 (2020): 1233.

[142] S. Banskota, A. Raguram, S. Suh, et al., “Engineered Virus-Like Particles for Efficient In Vivo Delivery of Therapeutic Proteins,” Cell 185, no. 2 (2022): 250–265.

[143] M. G. Yonk, M. A. Lim, C. M. Thompson, et al., “Improving Glioma Drug Delivery: A Multifaceted Approach for Glioma Drug Development,” Pharmacological Research 208 (2024): 107390.

[144] C. Hudson, R. P. Krattli, S. M. El-Khatib, et al., “Human Neural Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Improve Cognitive Function Following Glioma Chemoradiation Therapy,” Cancer Letters 653 (2026): 218564.

[145] P. E. Fecci, C. D. Champion, J. Hoj, et al., “The Evolving Modern Management of Brain Metastasis,” Clinical Cancer Research 25, no. 22 (2019): 6570–6580.

[146] L. K. Fung, M. G. Ewend, A. Sills, et al., “Pharmacokinetics of Interstitial Delivery of Carmustine, 4-hydroperoxycyclophosphamide, and Paclitaxel From a Biodegradable Polymer Implant in the Monkey Brain,” Cancer Research 58, no. 4 (1998): 672–684.

[147] D. Hu, M. Xia, L. Wu, et al., “Challenges and Advances for Glioma Therapy Based on Inorganic Nanoparticles,” Materials Today Bio 20 (2023): 100673.

[148] G. Guo, S. Fu, L. Zhou, et al., “Preparation of Curcumin Loaded poly(ε-caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) Nanofibers and Their In Vitro Antitumor Activity Against Glioma 9L Cells,” Nanoscale 3, no. 9 (2011): 3825–3832.

[149] R. Fan, D. Chuan, H. Hou, et al., “Development of a Hybrid Nanocarrier-Recognizing Tumor Vasculature and Penetrating the Bbb for Glioblastoma Multi -Targeting Therapy,” Nanoscale 11, no. 23 (2019): 11285–11304.

[150] M. Mu, H. Chen, R. Fan, et al., “A Tumor-Specific Ferric-Coordinated Epigallocatechin-3-gallate Cascade Nanoreactor for Glioblastoma Therapy,” Journal of Advanced Research 34 (2021): 29–41.

[151] X. Wang, Q. Cao, Y. Shi, et al., “Identification of Low-Dose Radiation-Induced Exosomal Circ- Metrn and miR-4709-3p/GRB14/PDGFRα Pathway as a Key Regulatory Mechanism in Glioblastoma Progression and Radioresistance: Functional Validation and Clinical Theranostic Significance,” International Journal of Biological Sciences 17, no. 4 (2021): 1061–1078.

[152] H. Wang, Q. Xu, X. Dong, et al., “Gold Nanoparticles Enhances Radiosensitivity in Glioma Cells by Inhibiting TRAF6/NF-?B Induced CCL2 Expression,” Heliyon 9, no. 3 (2023): e14362.

[153] G. Song, L. Cheng, Y. Chao, K. Yang, and Z. Liu, “Emerging Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials for Cancer Radiation Therapy,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 32 (2017): 1700996.

[154] S. Xiao, X. Wang, B. Chen, et al., “Enhancing Tumor Radiotherapy Sensitivity Through Metal Nanomaterials: A Comprehensive Review,” Malignancy Spectrum 1, no. 4 (2024): 243–262.

[155] I. Tremi, S. Havaki, S. Georgitsopoulou, et al., “Biological Response of Human Cancer Cells to Ionizing Radiation in Combination With Gold Nanoparticles,” Cancers 14, no. 20 (2022): 5086.

[156] M. Y. Yang, Y. W. Yu, D. L. Li, et al., “Intranasal Administration of a Novel Apoe-Mimetic Peptide-Coated Gold Nanoparticles as Therapy for Ischemic Stroke,” CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics 31, no. 3 (2025): e70263.

[157] X. Liu, Y. Chang, M. Long, et al., “Apoe Inhibits the Progression of Glioma by Activating Immune Function,” Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 29, no. 13 (2025): e70697.

[158] Y. Hu, S. Paris, N. Sahoo, et al., “Superior Antitumor Immune Response Achieved With Proton over Photon Immunoradiotherapy Is Amplified by the Nanoradioenhancer Nbtxr3,” Journal of Nanobiotechnology Oct 22, no. 1 (2024): 597.

[159] V. M. Lu, T. R. Jue, and K. L. McDonald, “Cytotoxic Lanthanum Oxide Nanoparticles Sensitize Glioblastoma Cells to Radiation Therapy and Temozolomide: An In Vitro Rationale for Translational Studies,” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020): 18156.

[160] P. D. Liu, H. Jin, Z. Guo, et al., “Silver Nanoparticles Outperform Gold Nanoparticles in Radiosensitizing U251 Cells In Vitro and in An Intracranial Mouse Model of Glioma,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 11 (2016): 5003–5014.

[161] B. A. Helmink, S. M. Reddy, J. Gao, et al., “B Cells and Tertiary Lymphoid Structures Promote Immunotherapy Response,” Nature 577, no. 7791 (2020): 549–555.

[162] C. Feng, Q. Wang, S. Xiao, et al., “Biopolymer Hydrogels for Adaptive Remodeling of the Tumor Microenvironment to Improve Cancer Immunotherapy,” Advanced Functional Materials 36, no. 18 (2026): e11828.

[163] U. Sahin, E. Derhovanessian, M. Miller, et al., “Personalized Rna Mutanome Vaccines Mobilize Poly-Specific Therapeutic Immunity Against Cancer,” Nature 547, no. 7662 (2017): 222–226.

[164] T. K. Kim, E. N. Vandsemb, R. S. Herbst, and L. Chen, “Adaptive Immune Resistance at the Tumour Site: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities,” Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 21, no. 7 (2022): 529–540.

[165] M. J. Lin, J. Svensson-Arvelund, G. S. Lubitz, et al., “Cancer Vaccines: The Next Immunotherapy Frontier,” Nature Cancer 3, no. 8 (2022): 911–926.

[166] Andrew, W. Awuah, M. H. Shah, J. K. Tan, et al., “Immunotherapeutic Advances in Glioma Management: The Rise of Vaccine-Based Approaches,” CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics 30, no. 9 (2024): e70013.

[167] D. B. Keskin, A. J. Anandappa, J. Sun, et al., “Neoantigen Vaccine Generates Intratumoral T Cell Responses in Phase Ib Glioblastoma Trial,” Nature 565, no. 7738 (2019): 234–239.

[168] C. Tręda, A. Włodarczyk, M. Pacholczyk, et al., “Increased Egfrviii Epitope Accessibility After Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Treatment of Glioblastoma Cells Creates More Opportunities for Immunotherapy,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 5 (2023): 4350.

[169] L. Zhong, L. Gan, B. Wang, et al., “Hyperacute Rejection-Engineered Oncolytic Virus for Interventional Clinical Trial in Refractory Cancer Patients,” Cell 188, no. 4 (2025): 1119–1136.

[170] X. Yin, Z. Hao, Q. Liu, et al., “Oncolytic Virus Infection Modulates Lysine Acetyltransferase in Gliomas: Comprehensive Analysis and Experimental Validation of KAT8 in Glioma,” Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 29, no. 8 (2025): e70558.

[171] D. K. Y. Zhang, K. Adu-Berchie, S. Iyer, et al., “Enhancing Car-T Cell Functionality in a Patient-Specific Manner,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 506.

[172] X. Wang, R. Fan, M. Mu, et al., “Harnessing Nanoengineered Car-T Cell Strategies to Advance Solid Tumor Immunotherapy,” Trends in Cell Biology 35, no. 9 (2025): 782–798.

[173] H. H. Chen and Y. W. Chen, “HGG-05. Regression OF Recurrent Glioblastoma AFTER Boron Neutron Capture Therapy AND Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Therapy IN A Child,” Neuro-Oncology 22 (2020): 345.

[174] C. Feng, X. Liang, R. Fan, M. Mu, L. Zhou, and G. Guo, “Metal-Organic Frameworks-Based Nanomedicines to Promote Cancer Immunotherapy: Recent Advances and Future Directions,” MedComm – Biomaterials and Applications 3, no. 4 (2024): e96.

[175] G. M. Traber and A. M. Yu, “The Growing Class of Novel Rnai Therapeutics,” Molecular Pharmacology 106, no. 1 (2024): 13–20.

[176] K. Wang, F. M. Kievit, M. Jeon, J. R. Silber, R. G. Ellenbogen, and M. Zhang, “Nanoparticle-Mediated Target Delivery of Trail as Gene Therapy for Glioblastoma,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 4, no. 17 (2015): 2719–2726.

[177] S. Y. Neshat, C. H. R. Chan, J. Harris, et al., “Polymeric Nanoparticle Gel for Intracellular Mrna Delivery and Immunological Reprogramming of Tumors,” Biomaterials 300 (2023): 122185.

[178] N. Knauer, M. Meschaninova, S. Muhammad, et al., “Effects of Dendrimer-Microrna Nanoformulations Against Glioblastoma Stem Cells,” Pharmaceutics 15, no. 3 (2023): 968.

[179] M. M. Hegde, P. Palkar, S. P. Mutalik, S. Mutalik, J. S. Goda, and B. S. S. Rao, “Enhancing Glioblastoma Cytotoxicity Through Encapsulating O6-benzylguanine and Temozolomide in Pegylated Liposomal Nanocarrier: An In Vitro Study,” 3 Biotech 14, no. 11 (2024): 275.

[180] K. Fan, X. Jia, M. Zhou, et al., “Ferritin Nanocarrier Traverses the Blood Brain Barrier and Kills Glioma,” ACS Nano 12, no. 5 (2018): 4105–4115.

[181] D. Rosenblum, A. Gutkin, R. Kedmi, et al., “CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing Using Targeted Lipid Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy,” Science Advances 6, no. 47 (2020): eabc9450.

[182] Z. H. Chen, Y. P. Yu, Z. H. Zuo, et al., “Targeting Genomic Rearrangements in Tumor Cells Through Cas9-mediated Insertion of a Suicide Gene,” Nature Biotechnology 35, no. 6 (2017): 543–550.

[183] Z. Yuan, X. Guo, M. Wei, et al., “Novel Fluorinated Polycationic Delivery of Anti-Vegf Sirna for Tumor Therapy,” NPG Asia Materials 12, no. 1 (2020): 34.

[184] W. Y. Tong, M. Alnakhli, R. Bhardwaj, et al., “Delivery of Sirna In Vitro and In Vivo Using Pei-Capped Porous Silicon Nanoparticles to Silence MRP1 and Inhibit Proliferation in Glioblastoma,” Journal of Nanobiotechnology 16, no. 1 (2018): 38.

[185] Y. Zou, X. Sun, Y. Wang, et al., “Single Sirna Nanocapsules for Effective Sirna Brain Delivery and Glioblastoma Treatment,” (vol 32, 2000416, 2020) Advanced Materials 35, no. 16 (2023): 2300777.

[186] J. Cui, X. Wang, J. Li, et al., “Immune Exosomes Loading Self-Assembled Nanomicelles Traverse the Blood-Brain Barrier for Chemo-Immunotherapy Against Glioblastoma,” ACS Nano 17, no. 2 (2023): 1464–1484.

[187] G. Lu, X. Wang, F. Li, et al., “Engineered Biomimetic Nanoparticles Achieve Targeted Delivery and Efficient Metabolism-Based Synergistic Therapy Against Glioblastoma,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (2022): 4214.

[188] X. Wang, X. Wei, J. Liu, et al., “Oxygen Self-Supplying Enzymatic Nanoplatform for Precise and Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy,” Advanced Therapeutics 5, no. 9 (2022): 2200049.

[189] G. Liang, Y. Yang, D. Cheng, Y. Ma, and L. Yan, “Synthesis of a New Photosensitizer for Laser-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy to Kill Cancer Cells in Gliomas,” Materials Advances 5, no. 18 (2024): 7467–7472.

[190] Y. Yang, Y. Wang, Y. Liu, et al., “Tumor Oxygen Microenvironment-Tailored Electron Transfer-Type Photosensitizers for Precise Cancer Therapy,” Chemical Science 15, no. 41 (2024): 17032–17040.

[191] L. Wang, Y. Xu, C. Liu, et al., “Copper-Doped Mof-Based Nanocomposite for Gsh Depleted Chemo/Photothermal/Chemodynamic Combination Therapy,” Chemical Engineering Journal 438, no. 38 (2022): 135567.

[192] T. Dube and J. J. Panda, “Anti-Glioma Activity Achieved by Dual Blood-Brain Barrier/Glioma Targeting Naive Chimeric Peptides-Based Co-Assembled Nanophototheranostics,” Pharmaceutics 15, no. 1 (2023): 265.

[193] Y. Huang, S. Wu, J. Li, et al., “Self-Amplified Ph/Ros Dual-Responsive Co-Delivery Nano-System With Chemo-Photodynamic Combination Therapy in Hepatic Carcinoma Treatment,” International Journal of Nanomedicine 19 (2024): 3737–3751.

[194] H. Li, X. Wang, D. Huang, and G. Chen, “Recent Advances of Lanthanide-Doped Upconversion Nanoparticles for Biological Applications,” Nanotechnology 31, no. 7 (2020): 072001.

[195] H. Gavilán, G. M. R. Rizzo, N. Silvestri, B. T. Mai, and T. Pellegrino, “Scale-Up Approach for the Preparation of Magnetic Ferrite Nanocubes and Other Shapes With Benchmark Performance for Magnetic Hyperthermia Applications,” Nature Protocols 18, no. 3 (2023): 783–809.

[196] J. Pan, Y. Xu, Q. Wu, P. Hu, and J. Shi, “Mild Magnetic Hyperthermia-Activated Innate Immunity for Liver Cancer Therapy,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 143, no. 21 (2021): 8116–8128.

[197] K. Maier-Hauff, F. Ulrich, D. Nestler, et al., “Efficacy and Safety of Intratumoral Thermotherapy Using Magnetic Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles Combined With External Beam Radiotherapy on Patients With Recurrent Glioblastoma Multiforme,” Journal of Neuro-Oncology 103, no. 2 (2011): 317–324.

[198] V. Nandwana, S. R. Ryoo, T. Zheng, M. M. You, and V. P. Dravid, “Magnetic Nanostructure-Coated Thermoresponsive Hydrogel Nanoconstruct as a Smart Multimodal Theranostic Platform,” ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering 5, no. 6 (2019): 3049–3059.

[199] E. P. Stater, A. Y. Sonay, C. Hart, and J. Grimm, “The Ancillary Effects of Nanoparticles and Their Implications for Nanomedicine,” Nature Nanotechnology 16, no. 11 (2021): 1180–1194.

[200] R. Afzalipour, S. Khoei, S. Khoee, et al., “Thermosensitive Magnetic Nanoparticles Exposed to Alternating Magnetic Field and Heat-Mediated Chemotherapy for An Effective Dual Therapy in Rat Glioma Model,” Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 31 (2021): 102319.

[201] F. Zhang, F. Li, G. H. Lu, et al., “Engineering Magnetosomes for Ferroptosis/Immunomodulation Synergism in Cancer,” ACS Nano 13, no. 5 (2019): 5662–5673.

[202] J. Y. Lee, Y. R. Na, C. M. Na, et al., “7-nm Mn0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle (Spion): A High-Performance Theranostic for Mri and Hyperthermia Applications,” Theranostics 15, no. 7 (2025): 2883–2902.

[203] J. Gonçalves, C. Nunes, L. Ferreira, et al., “Coating of Magnetite Nanoparticles With Fucoidan to Enhance Magnetic Hyperthermia Efficiency,” Nanomaterials 11, no. 11 (2021): 2939.

[204] L. Zhang, Q. Li, J. Liu, et al., “Recent Advances in Functionalized Ferrite Nanoparticles: From Fundamentals to Magnetic Hyperthermia Cancer Therapy,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 234 (2024): 113754.

[205] F. Gong, L. Cheng, N. Yang, et al., “Ultrasmall Oxygen-Deficient Bimetallic Oxide Mnwo_X Nanoparticles for Depletion of Endogenous Gsh and Enhanced Sonodynamic Cancer Therapy,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 23 (2019): 1900730.

[206] H. Jiao, Q. Mao, N. Razzaq, R. Ankri, and J. Cui, “Ultrasound Technology Assisted Colloidal Nanocrystal Synthesis and Biomedical Applications,” Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 103 (2024): 106798.

[207] X. Pan, W. Wang, Z. Huang, et al., “Mof-Derived Double-Layer Hollow Nanoparticles With Oxygen Generation Ability for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Sonodynamic Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 32 (2020): 13557–13561.

[208] S. Liang, X. Xiao, L. Bai, et al., “Conferring Ti-Based Mofs With Defects for Enhanced Sonodynamic Cancer Therapy,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 18 (2021): e2100333.

[209] B. Li, G. Chen, H. Zhong, et al., “γ-Glutamyl Transpeptidase-Activable Nanoprobe Crosses the Blood-Brain Barrier for Immuno-Sonodynamic Therapy of Glioma,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 10418.

[210] I. Lavon, D. Zrihan, A. Granit, et al., “Gliomas Display a Microrna Expression Profile Reminiscent of Neural Precursor Cells,” Neuro-Oncology 12, no. 5 (2010): 422–433.

[211] P. Zhang, Y. Xiao, X. Sun, et al., “Cancer Nanomedicine Toward Clinical Translation: Obstacles, Opportunities, and Future Prospects,” Med 4, no. 3 (2023): 147–167.

[212] S. Han, R. da Costa Marques, J. Simon, et al., “Endosomal Sorting Results in a Selective Separation of the Protein Corona From Nanoparticles,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 295.

[213] S. Ananda, A. K. Nowak, L. Cher, et al., “Phase 2 Trial of Temozolomide and Pegylated Liposomal Doxorubicin in the Treatment of Patients With Glioblastoma Multiforme Following Concurrent Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy,” Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 18, no. 11 (2011): 1444–1448.

[214] P. Vollmuth, M. Foltyn, R. Y. Huang, et al., “Artificial Intelligence (Ai)-Based Decision Support Improves Reproducibility of Tumor Response Assessment in Neuro-Oncology: An International Multi-Reader Study,” Neuro-Oncology 25, no. 3 (2023): 533–543.

[215] M. Zhao, D. van Straten, M. L. D. Broekman, V. Préat, and R. M. Schiffelers, “Nanocarrier-Based Drug Combination Therapy for Glioblastoma,” Theranostics 10, no. 3 (2020): 1355–1372.

[216] J. Cen, X. Dai, H. Zhao, et al., “Doxorubicin-Loaded Liposome With the Function of “Killing Two Birds With One Stone” Against Glioma,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 40 (2023): 46697–46709.

[217] H. Shi, T. K. Yu, B. Johnson, et al., “A Combination of PD-1 and Tigit Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors Elicits a Strong Anti-Tumour Response in Mesothelioma,” Journal of experimental & clinical cancer research: CR 44, no. 1 (2025): 51.

[218] Y. Zou, X. Sun, Q. Yang, et al., “Blood-Brain Barrier-Penetrating Single CRISPR-Cas9 Nanocapsules for Effective and Safe Glioblastoma Gene Therapy,” Science Advances 8, no. 16 (2022): eabm8011.

[219] J. Kadkhoda, A. Tarighatnia, J. Barar, A. Aghanejad, and S. Davaran, “Recent Advances and Trends in Nanoparticles Based Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapy,” Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy 37 (2022): 102697.

[220] N. Kuthala, R. Vankayala, Y. N. Li, C. S. Chiang, and K. C. Hwang, “Engineering Novel Targeted Boron-10-Enriched Theranostic Nanomedicine to Combat Against Murine Brain Tumors via Mr Imaging-Guided Boron Neutron Capture Therapy,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 31 (2017): 1700850.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Author(s). MedComm - Oncology published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Sichuan International Medical Exchange & Promotion Association (SCIMEA).