Low-carbon ultra-high-performance concrete: raw materials, particle packing optimization, and data-driven performance assessment—a review

Abstract

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) offers exceptional mechanical properties and durability; however, its cement-intensive formulations raise concerns regarding environmental sustainability. This study addresses this challenge by establishing quantitative relationships between UHPC mixture design, performance indicators, and embodied CO₂ emissions by coupling a literature survey with data-driven analysis of over 200 mixtures. Unlike previous studies that examine the behavior of raw materials and the resulting performance in isolation, this study leverages data-driven approaches to link mixture design parameters to mechanical performance, durability indicators, and embodied CO₂ emissions, thereby providing useful insights into low-carbon UHPC formulations. The influence of supplementary cementitious materials and mineral fillers is evaluated across rheological, mechanical, durability, and carbon footprint aspects. Machine learning (i.e., Random Forest) analysis demonstrates high accuracy in predicting compressive strength from mixture design parameters, while tensile properties and permeability remain influenced by microstructural factors not captured by mixture design parameters. Heat map correlation reveals strong interdependencies among mechanical and durability performance indicators, with compressive strength highly correlated (95%–98%) across curing ages and inversely related to permeability-related durability metrics. An exponential relationship between cement-to-binder and water-to-cement ratios is established (R² of 95%), providing a strong predictive tool for mixture design. From a carbon footprint perspective, cement is the dominant contributor to CO₂ emissions, as expected. Interestingly, cement content above 800 kg/m³ has negligible contributions to mechanical properties while significantly increasing the embodied CO₂ emissions. By adopting a data-driven approach, this study provides novel insights into designing UHPC mixtures that foster higher mechanical and durability performance while reducing embodied carbon.

Keywords

CO₂ emissions / Machine learning / Mixture design optimization / Particle packing design models / Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) / Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)

References

[1] Adesina A, Zhang JImpact of concrete structures durability on its sustainability and climate resiliency. Next Sustainability, 2024, 3100025

[2] Lemon, MdMR., Hossain, F., & Imam, MdH. (2026). Experimental Investigation on the Durability Properties of Concrete under Aggressive Environmental Conditions. Journal of Ceramics and Concrete Sciences, 11, 46–70. https://doi.org/10.46610/JoCCS.2026.v011i01.005

[3] Piao R, Choi H-J, Kim S-J, Li W, Yoo D-YDevelopment of ultra-high-performance concrete incorporating nanobubble water and steel slag powder: Mechanical and microstructural optimization. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2026, 166106419

[4] Wang S, Wang B, Zhu H, Chen G, Li Z, Yang L, et al.Ultra-high performance concrete: Mix design, raw materials and curing regimes-A review. Materials Today Communications, 2023, 35105468

[5] Richard P, Cheyrezy MComposition of reactive powder concretes. Cement and Concrete Research, 1995, 25: 1501-1511.

[6] Moolchandani KIndustrial byproducts in concrete: A state-of-the-art review. Next Materials, 2025, 8100593

[7] De Matos PR, Sakata RD, Gleize PJP, De Brito J, Repette WLEco-friendly ultra-high performance cement pastes produced with quarry wastes as alternative fillers. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 269122308

[8] Díaz J, Gálvez JC, Alberti MG, Enfedaque AAchieving ultra-high performance concrete by using packing models in combination with nanoadditives. Nanomaterials, 2021, 111414

[9] Kwan AKH, Fung WWSPacking density measurement and modelling of fine aggregate and mortar. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2009, 31: 349-357.

[10] Song J, Banthia N, Yoo D-YEffect of supplementary cementitious materials on durability of ultra-high-performance concrete: A review. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2025, 163106198

[11] Mandor A, Taie BToward resilient infrastructure: A critical review and roadmap for ultra–high–performance concrete (UHPC) design, performance and standards. Discovery, Concrete and Cement, 2026, 2: 11.

[12] Alotaibi E, Nassif N, Alhalabi MUltra-high-performance concrete for sustainable development goals: A systematic review and conceptual framework. Journal of Building Engineering, 2026, 123115802

[13] Ben Chaabene W, Flah M, Nehdi MLMachine learning prediction of mechanical properties of concrete: Critical review. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 260119889

[14] Young BA, Hall A, Pilon L, Gupta P, Sant GCan the compressive strength of concrete be estimated from knowledge of the mixture proportions?: New insights from statistical analysis and machine learning methods. Cement and Concrete Research, 2019, 115379-388.

[15] Aylas-Paredes BK, Han T, Neithalath A, Huang J, Goel A, Kumar A, et al.Data driven design of ultra high performance concrete prospects and application. Science and Reports, 2025, 15: 9248.

[16] Dunuweera SP, Rajapakse RMGCement types, composition, uses and advantages of nanocement, environmental impact on cement production, and possible solutions. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2018, 20181-11.

[17] Dils J, Boel V, De Schutter GInfluence of cement type and mixing pressure on air content, rheology and mechanical properties of UHPC. Construction and Building Materials, 2013, 41: 455-463.

[18] Dhir RK, McCarthy MJ, Zhou S, Tittle PAJRole of cement content in specifications for concrete durability: Cement type influences. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Structures and Buildings, 2004, 157: 113-127.

[19] Akhnoukh AK, Buckhalter CUltra-high-performance concrete: Constituents, mechanical properties, applications and current challenges. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2021, 15e00559

[20] Ciment Québec. (n.d.). Which type of cement to use? Retrieved July 18, 2024 from https://www.cimentquebec.com/en-can/cement/which-cement-to-choose/ 

[21] Ahmed T, Elchalakani M, Karrech A, Mohamed Ali MS, Guo LDevelopment of ECO-UHPC with very-low-C3A cement and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 284122787

[22] Pan Z, Tan M, Zheng G, Wei L, Tao Z, Hao YEffect of silica fume type on rheology and compressive strength of geopolymer mortar. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 430136488

[23] Lewis RCDe Belie N, Soutsos M, Gruyaert ESilica fume. Properties of fresh and hardened concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials, 2018Springer International Publishing99121. 25

[24] Xi J, Liu J, Yang K, Zhang S, Han F, Sha J, et al.Role of silica fume on hydration and strength development of ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 338127600

[25] Zhang J, Zhao Y, Li HExperimental investigation and prediction of compressive strength of ultra-high performance concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2017, 2017: 1-8.

[26] Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Saad AIEffect of ferrosilicon and silica fume on mechanical, durability, and microstructure characteristics of ultra high-performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 320126233

[27] Lin Y, Yan J, Wang Z, Fan F, Zou CEffect of silica fumes on fluidity of UHPC: Experiments, influence mechanism and evaluation methods. Construction and Building Materials, 2019, 210: 451-460.

[28] Mazloom M, Ramezanianpour AA, Brooks JJEffect of silica fume on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2004, 26: 347-357.

[29] Xu D, Tang J, Hu X, Zhou Y, Yu C, Han F, et al.Influence of silica fume and thermal curing on long-term hydration, microstructure and compressive strength of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 395132370

[30] Hamada HM, Abed F, Binti Katman HY, Humada AM, Al Jawahery MS, Majdi A, et al.Effect of silica fume on the properties of sustainable cement concrete. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2023, 24: 8887-8908.

[31] Siddique RUtilization of silica fume in concrete: Review of hardened properties. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2011, 55: 923-932.

[32] Duan P, Shui Z, Chen W, Shen CEffects of metakaolin, silica fume and slag on pore structure, interfacial transition zone and compressive strength of concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2013, 44: 1-6.

[33] Wardhono AComparison study of class F and class C fly ashes as cement replacement material on strength development of non-cement mortar. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2018, 288012019

[34] Grace MA, Clifford E, Healy MGThe potential for the use of waste products from a variety of sectors in water treatment processes. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 137: 788-802.

[35] Bahedh MA, Jaafar MSUltra high-performance concrete utilizing fly ash as cement replacement under autoclaving technique. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2018, 9e00202

[36] Ahmed T, Elchalakani M, Karrech A, Dong M, Mohamed Ali MS, Yang HECO-UHPC with high-volume class-F fly ash: New insight into mechanical and durability properties. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2021, 3304021174

[37] Ferdosian I, Camões A, Ribeiro MHigh-volume fly ash paste for developing ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). Ciência & Tecnologia Dos Materiais, 2017, 29: e157-e161.

[38] Lu XK, Zhang W, Ruggiero BN, Seitz LC, Li JScalable electrified cementitious materials production and recycling. Energy & Environmental Science, 2024, 17: 9566-9579.

[39] Ghafari E, Ghahari SA, Costa H, Júlio E, Portugal A, Durães LEffect of supplementary cementitious materials on autogenous shrinkage of ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 127: 43-48.

[40] Ahmad J, Kontoleon KJ, Majdi A, Naqash MT, Deifalla AF, Ben Kahla N, et al.A Comprehensive Review on the Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) in Concrete Production. Sustainability, 2022, 14: 8783.

[41] Yu R, Spiesz P, Brouwers HJHDevelopment of an eco-friendly Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) with efficient cement and mineral admixtures uses. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2015, 55383-394.

[42] Moula S, Ben Fraj A, Wattez T, Bouasker M, Hadj Ali NBMechanical properties, carbon footprint and cost of ultra-high performance concrete containing ground granulated blast furnace slag. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 79107796

[43] Moula S, Ben Fraj A, Wattez T, Bouasker M, Bel Hadj Ali NThe very early-age behaviour of ultra-high performance concrete containing ground granulated blast furnace slag. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 400132630

[44] He J, Liu T, Wu W, Ling X, Yu QMechanism of SCMs on the hydration, pore structure, and durability of UHPFRC. Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 2025, 14: 1899-1916.

[45] Zhan P, Xu J, Wang J, Jiang CMulti-scale study on synergistic effect of cement replacement by metakaolin and typical supplementary cementitious materials on properties of ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 307125082

[46] Zhang B, Ji T, Ma Y, Zhang QEffect of metakaolin and magnesium oxide on flexural strength of ultra-high performance concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2022, 131104582

[47] Mo Z, Gao X, Su AMechanical performances and microstructures of metakaolin contained UHPC matrix under steam curing conditions. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 268121112

[48] Norhasri MMS, Hamidah MS, MohdFadzil A, Megawati OInclusion of nano metakaolin as additive in ultra high performance concrete (UHPC). Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 127: 167-175.

[49] Fadzil AM, MuhdNorhasri MS, Hamidah MS, Zaidi MR, MohdFaizal JHassan R, Yusoff M, Ismail Z, Amin NM, Fadzil MAAlteration of nano metakaolin for ultra high performance concrete. InCIEC 2013, 2014Springer Singapore887894.

[50] Abdellatief M, AL-Tam SM, Elemam WE, Alanazi H, Elgendy GM, Tahwia AMDevelopment of ultra-high-performance concrete with low environmental impact integrated with metakaolin and industrial wastes. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2023, 18e01724

[51] Tafraoui A, Escadeillas G, Vidal TDurability of the ultra high performances concrete containing metakaolin. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 112: 980-987.

[52] Mostafa SA, Faried AS, Farghali AA, EL-Deeb MM, Tawfik TA, Majer S, et al.Influence of nanoparticles from waste materials on mechanical properties, durability and microstructure of UHPC. Materials, 2020, 134530

[53] Mo Z, Wang R, Gao XHydration and mechanical properties of UHPC matrix containing limestone and different levels of metakaolin. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 256119454

[54] Tahwia AM, Essam A, Tayeh BA, Elrahman MAEnhancing sustainability of ultra-high performance concrete utilizing high-volume waste glass powder. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2022, 17e01648

[55] Wang Y, Wang J, Wu Y, Li Y, He X, Su Y, et al.Preparation of sustainable ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with ultra-fine glass powder as multi-dimensional substitute material. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 401132857

[56] Ghareeb KS, Ahmed HE, El-Affandy TH, Deifalla AF, El-Sayed TAThe novelty of using glass powder and lime powder for producing UHPSCC. Buildings, 2022, 12: 684.

[57] Li Z, Zhan J, Wang Y, He Z, Xie YLow-carbon UHPC with glass powder and shell powder: Deformation, compressive strength, microstructure and ecological evaluation. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024

[58] Soliman NA, Tagnit-Hamou ADevelopment of ultra-high-performance concrete using glass powder – Towards ecofriendly concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 125600-612.

[59] Esmaeili J, AL-Mwanes AOA review: Properties of eco-friendly ultra-high-performance concrete incorporated with waste glass as a partial replacement for cement. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, 42: 1958-1965.

[60] Amin M, Zeyad AM, Agwa IS, Rizk MSEffect of industrial wastes on the properties of sustainable ultra-high-performance concrete: Ganite, ceramic, and glass. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 428136292

[61] Xu J, Zhan P, Zhou W, Zuo J, Shah SP, He ZDesign and assessment of eco-friendly ultra-high performance concrete with steel slag powder and recycled glass powder. Powder Technology, 2023, 419118356

[62] Ferreira FGDS, Vitoretti Dias L, Mari Soares S, Lorenzetti De Castro AInfluence of thermal curing in the physical and mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance concrete with glass powder. Revista de la Asociación Latinoamericana de Control de Calidad, Patología y Recuperación de la Construcción, 2022, 12: 184-199.

[63] Vaitkevičius V, Šerelis E, Hilbig HThe effect of glass powder on the microstructure of ultra high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2014, 68: 102-109.

[64] Esmaeili J, Oudah AL-Mwanes AA review: Properties of eco-friendly ultra-high-performance concrete incorporated with waste glass as a partial replacement for cement. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, 42: 1958-1965.

[65] Soliman, N., Omran, A., & Tagnit-Hamou, A. (2019). Effect of Very Fine Ground Glass Pozzolan on Fresh and Mechanical Properties of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete. In: International Interactive Symposium on Ultra-High Performance Concrete Papers. Iowa State University Digital Press. https://doi.org/10.21838/uhpc.9631 

[66] Ke G, Li W, Li R, Li Y, Wang GMitigation effect of waste glass powders on alkali-silica reaction (ASR) expansion in cementitious composite. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 2018, 12: 67.

[67] Du J, Wang Y, Bao Y, Sarkar D, Meng WValorization of wasted-derived biochar in ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC): Pretreatment, characterization, and environmental benefits. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 409133839

[68] Dixit, A., Gupta, S., Pang, S. D., & Kua, H. W. (2020). Cement Replacement and Improved Hydration in Ultra-High Performance Concrete Using Biochar. In: Boshoff, W., Combrinck, R., Mechtcherine, V., Wyrzykowski, M. (Eds), 3rd International Conference on the Application of Superabsorbent Polymers (SAP) and Other New Admixtures Towards Smart Concrete (pp. 222–229). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33342-3_24

[69] Dixit A, Verma A, Pang SDDual waste utilization in ultra-high performance concrete using biochar and marine clay. Cement & Concrete Composites, 2021, 120104049

[70] Zhang Y, He M, Wang L, Yan J, Ma B, Zhu X, et al.Biochar as construction materials for achieving carbon neutrality. Biochar, 2022, 459

[71] Winters D, Boakye K, Simske SToward carbon-neutral concrete through biochar–cement–calcium carbonate composites: A critical review. Sustainability, 2022, 144633

[72] Vafaei B, Ghahremaninezhad AEffects of biochar as a green additive on the self-healing and properties of sustainable cementitious materials. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2024, 128261-8275.

[73] Dixit A, Gupta S, Pang SD, Kua HWWaste valorisation using biochar for cement replacement and internal curing in ultra-high performance concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019

[74] Gupta S, Kua HWCarbonaceous micro-filler for cement: Effect of particle size and dosage of biochar on fresh and hardened properties of cement mortar. Science of The Total Environment, 2019, 662: 952-962.

[75] Mosaberpanah MA, Umar SAUtilizing Rice Husk Ash as Supplement to Cementitious Materials on Performance of Ultra High Performance Concrete: – A review. Materials Today Sustainability, 2020, 7–8100030

[76] Van V-T-A, Rößler C, Bui D-D, Ludwig H-MRice husk ash as both pozzolanic admixture and internal curing agent in ultra-high performance concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2014, 53: 270-278.

[77] Abellan-Garcia J, Martinez DM, Khan MI, Abbas YM, Pellicer-Martínez FEnvironmentally friendly use of rice husk ash and recycled glass waste to produce ultra-high-performance concrete. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2023, 25: 1869-1881.

[78] Alyami M, Hakeem IY, Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Agwa ISEffect of agricultural olive, rice husk and sugarcane leaf waste ashes on sustainable ultra-high-performance concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 72106689

[79] Huang H, Gao X, Wang H, Ye HInfluence of rice husk ash on strength and permeability of ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2017, 149: 621-628.

[80] Ha NS, Marundrury SS, Pham TM, Pournasiri E, Shi F, Hao HEffect of grounded blast furnace slag and rice husk ash on performance of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) subjected to impact loading. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 329127213

[81] Faried AS, Mostafa SA, Tayeh BA, Tawfik TAThe effect of using nano rice husk ash of different burning degrees on ultra-high-performance concrete properties. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 290123279

[82] Kang S-H, Hong S-G, Moon JThe use of rice husk ash as reactive filler in ultra-high performance concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 2019, 115: 389-400.

[83] Ngo TV, Tran VB, Le BH, Dang HT, Matos J, Tran MQ, et al.An assessment of the impact of locally recycled cementitious replacement materials on the strength of the ultra-high-performance concrete. Applied Sciences, 2024, 147484

[84] Wang X, Yu R, Shui Z, Song Q, Zhang ZMix design and characteristics evaluation of an eco-friendly ultra-high performance concrete incorporating recycled coral based materials. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2017, 165: 70-80.

[85] He Z, Han X, Shi J, Aslani F, Gencel O, Du SMulti-scale characteristics of eco-friendly marine binder using coral waste. Powder Technology, 2022, 403117395

[86] He Z, Shen M, Shi J, Yalçınkaya Ç, Du S, Yuan QRecycling coral waste into eco-friendly UHPC: Mechanical strength, microstructure, and environmental benefits. Science of the Total Environment, 2022, 836155424

[87] He Z, Ni Y, Zhang Y, Shi J, Revilla-Cuesta V, Hu Y, et al.Mechanical properties, nanoscale characteristics, and environmental analysis of high-volume waste coral powder mortar (HVCM). Powder Technology, 2022, 407117613

[88] Wang D, Shi C, Farzadnia N, Shi Z, Jia H, Ou ZA review on use of limestone powder in cement-based materials: Mechanism, hydration and microstructures. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 181: 659-672.

[89] Ma R, Zhang L, Song Y, Lin G, Qian X, Qian KRecycling stone powder as a partial substitute for cementitious materials into eco-friendly manufactured sand ultra-high performance concretes: Towards cleaner and more cost-effective construction production. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 92109772

[90] Huang Y, Chen Q, Shang H, Wang J, Song NDevelopment of sustainable ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) by synergistic utilization of red mud and limestone powder. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 90109372

[91] Chen K, Cheng S, Wu Q, Chen X, Zhao C, Li S, et al.Utilization of recycled fine aggregate in ultra-high performance concrete: Mechanical strength, microstructure and environment impacts. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 439137364

[92] Zhang XY, Fan MX, Zhou YX, Ji DD, Li JH, Yu RDevelopment of a sustainable alkali activated ultra-high performance concrete (A-UHPC) incorporating recycled concrete fines. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 67105986

[93] Shorthouse, P. (2021). The circular economy & Canada’s built environment. Circular Economy Leadership Canada 2021. Retrieved July 19, 2024, from https://circulareconomyleaders.ca/resources/the-circular-economy-canadas-built-environment/ 

[94] Yu L, Huang L, Ding HRheological and mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance concrete containing fine recycled concrete aggregates. Materials, 2019, 123717

[95] Pavlů T, Fořtová K, Mariaková D, Řepka J, Vlach T, Hájek PHigh-performance concrete with fine recycled concrete aggregate: Experimental assessment. Structural Concrete, 2023, 24: 1868-1878.

[96] Sierens. Z., Joseph. M., Vandevyvere. B., & Li. J. (2018). High Quality Recycled Concrete Aggregates in UHPC: A Preliminary Study [Conference paper presentation]. International Conference Progress of Recycling in the Built Environment, Lisbon, Portugal.

[97] Zhang H, Ji T, Zeng X, Yang Z, Lin X, Liang YMechanical behavior of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) using recycled fine aggregate cured under different conditions and the mechanism based on integrated microstructural parameters. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 192: 489-507.

[98] Nassar R-U-D, Zaid O, Elhadi KMUtilizing carbonated recycled concrete fines to develop sustainable ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 2025, 99111634

[99] Suchithra S, Sowmiya M, Pavithran TEffect of ceramic tile waste on strength parameters of concrete-a review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2022, 65: 975-982.

[100] Al-Fakih A, Odeh A, Mahamood M, Al-Shugaa M, Al-Osta M, Ahmad SReview of the Properties of Sustainable Cementitious Systems Incorporating Ceramic Waste. Buildings, 2023, 13: 2105.

[101] Jain P, Gupta R, Chaudhary SA literature review on the effect of using ceramic waste as supplementary cementitious material in cement composites on workability and compressive strength. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2022, 65871-876.

[102] Li L, Liu W, You Q, Chen M, Zeng QWaste ceramic powder as a pozzolanic supplementary filler of cement for developing sustainable building materials. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 259120853

[103] Zhang L, Bian M, Xiao Z, Wang Y, Xu K, Han B, et al.Using nano-CaCO ₃ and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete. Nanotechnology Reviews, 2024, 13: 20230198.

[104] Zhang L, Shen H, Xu K, Huang W, Wang Y, Chen M, et al.Effect of ceramic waste tile as a fine aggregate on the mechanical properties of low-carbon ultrahigh performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 370130595

[105] Xu K, Huang W, Zhang L, Fu S, Chen M, Ding S, et al.Mechanical properties of low-carbon ultrahigh-performance concrete with ceramic tile waste powder. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 287123036

[106] Amin M, Tayeh BA, Agwa ISEffect of using mineral admixtures and ceramic wastes as coarse aggregates on properties of ultrahigh-performance concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 273123073

[107] Kannan DM, Aboubakr SH, EL-Dieb AS, Reda Taha MMHigh performance concrete incorporating ceramic waste powder as large partial replacement of Portland cement. Construction and Building Materials, 2017, 14435-41.

[108] LópezBoadella Í, LópezGayarre F, Suárez González J, Gómez-Soberón JM, López-Colina Pérez C, Serrano López M, et al.The Influence of Granite Cutting Waste on The Properties of Ultra-High Performance Concrete. Materials, 2019, 12: 634.

[109] Hakeem IY, Amin M, Agwa IS, Rizk MS, Abdelmagied MFEffect of using sugarcane leaf ash and granite dust as partial replacements for cement on characteristics of ultra-high performance concrete. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2023, 19e02266

[110] Xiong X, Wu M, Shen W, Li J, Zhao D, Li P, et al.Performance and microstructure of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) with silica fume replaced by inert mineral powders. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 327126996

[111] Zhang H, Ji T, He B, He LPerformance of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with cement partially replaced by ground granite powder (GGP) under different curing conditions. Construction and Building Materials, 2019, 213469-482.

[112] Hou D, Wu D, Wang X, Gao S, Yu R, Li M, et al.Sustainable use of red mud in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC): Design and performance evaluation. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2021, 115103862

[113] Yan P, Chen B, Aminul Haque M, Liu TInfluence of red mud on the engineering and microstructural properties of sustainable ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 396132404

[114] Wang Y, Zhang T, Lyu G, Guo F, Zhang W, Zhang YRecovery of alkali and alumina from bauxite residue (red mud) and complete reuse of the treated residue. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 188: 456-465.

[115] Liu R-X, Poon C-SUtilization of red mud derived from bauxite in self-compacting concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 112: 384-391.

[116] Ling G, Shui Z, Gao X, Sun T, Yu R, Li XUtilizing Iron Ore Tailing as Cementitious Material for Eco-Friendly Design of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC). Materials, 2021, 14: 1829.

[117] Zhang W, Gu X, Qiu J, Liu J, Zhao Y, Li XEffects of iron ore tailings on the compressive strength and permeability of ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 260119917

[118] Gu X, Zhang W, Zhang X, Li X, Qiu JHydration characteristics investigation of iron tailings blended ultra high performance concrete: The effects of mechanical activation and iron tailings content. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 45103459

[119] Huang X, Ranade R, Li VCFeasibility Study of Developing Green ECC Using Iron Ore Tailings Powder as Cement Replacement. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2013, 25923-931.

[120] Zhao Y, Gu X, Qiu J, Zhang W, Li XStudy on the utilization of iron tailings in ultra-high-performance concrete: Fresh properties and compressive behaviors. Materials, 2021, 144807

[121] Zhu Z, Li B, Zhou MThe influences of iron ore tailings as fine aggregate on the strength of ultra-high performance concrete. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2015, 2015: 1-6.

[122] Zhao S, Fan J, Sun WUtilization of iron ore tailings as fine aggregate in ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2014, 50: 540-548.

[123] Zhou M, Wu Z, Ouyang X, Hu X, Shi CMixture design methods for ultra-high-performance concrete - A review. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2021, 124104242

[124] De Grazia MT, Sanchez LFM, Yahia ATowards the design of eco-efficient concrete mixtures: An overview. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, 389135752

[125] Furnas CCGrading aggregates - I. - Mathematical relations for beds of broken solids of maximum density. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 1931, 23: 1052-1058.

[126] Zheng J, Carlson WB, Reed JSThe packing density of binary powder mixtures. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 1995, 15: 479-483.

[127] Fennis‐Huijben, SAAM. (2011). Design of Ecological Concrete by Particle Packing Optimization [Doctoral dissertation, Delft University of Technology].

[128] Toufar W, Born M, Klose EBeitrag zur Optimierung der Packungsdichte Polydisperser körniger Systeme, 1976VEB Deutscher Verlag Für Grundstoffindustrie2944

[129] Goltermann P, Johansen V, Palbøl L. Packing of Aggregates: An Alternative Tool to Determine the Optimal Aggregate Mix. Materials Journal 1997;94:435–43. https://doi.org/10.14359/328.

[130] Stovall T, De Larrard F, Buil MLinear packing density model of grain mixtures. Powder Technology, 1986, 48: 1-12.

[131] De Larrard, F. (1988). Formulation et propriétés des bétons à très hautes performances. Central Laboratory of Bridges and Highways, France.

[132] De Larrard, F., & Sedran, T. (1994). Optimization of ultra‑high‑performance concrete by the use of a packing model. Cement and Concrete Research, 24(6), 997–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90022-1

[133] De Larrard FConcrete mixture proportioning: A scientific approach, 1999CRC Press448.

[134] Fuller WB, Thompson SEThe laws of proportioning concrete. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1907

[135] Andreasen AHMUeber die Beziehung zwischen Kornabstufung und Zwischenraum in Produkten aus losen Körnern (mit einigen Experimenten). Kolloid-Zeitschrift, 1930, 50: 217-228.

[136] Funk JE, Dinger DRPredictive process control of crowded particulate suspensions, 1994Springer US

[137] Wan Y, Li L, Zou J, Xiao H, Zhu M, Su Y, et al.Effect of shrinkage reducing agent and steel fiber on the fluidity and cracking performance of ultra-high performance concrete. FDMP-Fluid Dynamics Materials Processing, 2024, 20: 1941-1956.

[138] Wu Z, Khayat KH, Shi CChanges in rheology and mechanical properties of ultra-high performance concrete with silica fume content. Cement and Concrete Research, 2019, 123105786

[139] Tran TM, Trinh HTMK, Nguyen D, Tao Q, Mali S, Pham TMDevelopment of sustainable ultra-high-performance concrete containing ground granulated blast furnace slag and glass powder: Mix design investigation. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 397132358

[140] Venkatesh C, Nerella R, Chand MSRExperimental investigation of strength, durability, and microstructure of red-mud concrete. Journal of the Korean Ceramic Society, 2019, 57: 167-174.

[141] Bahmani H, Mostofinejad DMicrostructure of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) – A review study. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 50104118

[142] Jhatial AA, Nováková I, Gjerløw EA review on emerging cementitious materials, reactivity evaluation and treatment methods. Buildings, 2023, 13: 526.

[143] Cheruvu R, Rao BKEnhanced concrete performance and sustainability with fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag – A comprehensive experimental study. Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal, 2024, 18161-174.

[144] Hamad MA, Nasr M, Shubbar A, Al-Khafaji Z, Al Masoodi Z, Al-Hashimi O, et al.Production of ultra-high-performance concrete with low energy consumption and carbon footprint using supplementary cementitious materials instead of silica fume: A review. Energies, 2021, 148291

[145] Li PP, Brouwers HJH, Chen W, Yu QOptimization and characterization of high-volume limestone powder in sustainable ultra-high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 242118112

[146] Park S, Wu S, Liu Z, Pyo SThe role of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in ultra high performance concrete (UHPC): A review. Materials, 2021, 141472

[147] Du J, Wang Y, Guo P, Meng WTailoring of steel fiber surface by coating cellulose nanocrystal for enhanced flexural properties of UHPC. Cement & Concrete Composites, 2024, 154105773

[148] Beskopylny AN, Stel’makh SA, Shcherban’ EM, Mailyan LR, Meskhi B, Smolyanichenko AS, et al.High-performance concrete nanomodified with recycled rice straw biochar. Applied Sciences, 2022, 125480

[149] Ouyang X, Shi C, Wu Z, Li K, Shan B, Shi JExperimental investigation and prediction of elastic modulus of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) based on its composition. Cement and Concrete Research, 2020, 138106241

[150] Hasgül U, Biçakçioğlu NUltra yüksek performanslı betonda çimento yerine cam tozu ve/veya yüksek fırın cürufunun kullanılabilirliği. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 2022, 37: 2241-2258.

[151] Nikbin, I. M., Aliaghazadeh, M., Charkhtab, S., & Fathollahpour, A. (2018). Environmental impacts and mechanical properties of lightweight concrete containing bauxite residue (red mud). Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 2683–2694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.143

[152] Venkatesh C, Ruben N, Chand MSRRed mud as an additive in concrete: Comprehensive characterization. Journal of the Korean Ceramic Society, 2020, 57: 281-289.

[153] Tang WC, Wang Z, Liu Y, Cui HZInfluence of red mud on fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 178: 288-300.

[154] Kanyal, K. S., Agrawal, Y., & Gupta, T. (2021). Properties of sustainable concrete containing red mud: A review. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 27(3), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2021/v27i330366

[155] Abbas S, Nehdi ML, Saleem MAUltra-High Performance Concrete: Mechanical Performance, Durability, Sustainability and Implementation Challenges. Int J Concr Struct Mater, 2016, 10: 271-295.

[156] Wang M, Yao HA Novel Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Admixture for Increasing Flowability and Reducing Viscosity of Ultra-High Performance Paste. Materials, 2020, 13: 3385.

[157] El-Helou, R. G., Haber, Z. B., & Graybeal, B. A. Mechanical behavior and design properties of ultra‑high‑performance concrete (Open Source). Materials Journal, 119(1), 181–194. https://doi.org/10.14359/51734194

[158] García JA, Castellanos NT, Gomez JAF, Lopez AMNUltra-high-performance concrete with local high unburned carbon fly ash. DYNA, 2021, 8838-47.

[159] Hasan TM, Gilbert L, Allena S, Owusu-Danquah J, Torres ADevelopment of Non-Proprietary Ultra-High Performance Concrete Mixtures. Buildings, 2022, 12: 1865.

[160] Chang W, Zheng WEffects of key parameters on fluidity and compressive strength of ultra‐high performance concrete. Structural Concrete, 2020, 21747-760.

[161] Voo YL, Foster SJCharacteristics of ultra-high performance ‘ductile’ concrete and its impact on sustainable construction. The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering, 2010, 3: 168-187.

[162] Liu Q, Hu Z, Lu X, Yang J, Azim I, Sun WPrediction of Chloride Distribution for Offshore Concrete Based on Statistical Analysis. Materials, 2020, 13: 174.

[163] Ibrahim M, Bahraq AA, Salami BA, Alhems LM, Hussaini SR, Nasir M, et al.Pore Structure Characterization and Environmental Assessment of Ground Volcanic Pumice-Based Alkali-Activated Concrete. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 2025, 1960.

[164] Li L, Zou Y, Jiang Y, Zhou J, Yang J, Zhang ZDurability of micro-cracked UHPC under the effects of loads and environments: A state of the art review. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2025, 23e05433

[165] Liu X, Zhang M-HPermeability of high-performance concrete incorporating presoaked lightweight aggregates for internal curing. Magazine of Concrete Research, 2010, 6279-89.

[166] Hu YJ, Du YL, Zhang WEvaluation of relationship between innitial current, conductance, chloride diffusion coefficient and charge passed of concrete. Advanced Materials Research, 2011, 399–401: 1200-1203.

[167] Xin-e, Y. (2021). Study on chloride ion diffusion characteristics of reactive powder concrete under different loads. In: Safuan, B, A. Rashid, A., Liu, A. (Eds), E3S Web of Conferences, 283, 01015. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128301015

[168] Ye H, Jin X, Fu C, Jin N, Xu Y, Huang TChloride penetration in concrete exposed to cyclic drying-wetting and carbonation. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 112: 457-463.

[169] Yang YB, Lai ZQ, Ai LT, Guo WY, Huang HJ, Wang HCExperimental Research on the Evaluation Method of the Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration of Autoclaved PHC Pile. KEM, 2014, 629–630: 587-592.

[170] Yoon Y-S, An G-H, Koh K-T, Ryu G-SMechanical performance and shrinkage behavior of ultrahigh-performance concrete with ferronickel slag under various curing conditions. Buildings, 2025, 153670

[171] Kothari A, Rajczakowska M, Cwirzen AUHPC overlay as sustainable solution to preserve old concrete structures. MATEC Web Conf, 2022, 364: 04014.

[172] Wang B, Wang L, Li MExperimental research on the autogenous shrinkage of MK high performance concrete. J Wuhan Univ Technol, 2007, 22551-554.

[173] Huang H, Ye GExamining the “time-zero” of autogenous shrinkage in high/ultra-high performance cement pastes. Cement and Concrete Research, 2017, 97: 107-114.

[174] Huang W, Zhang T, Xu YYResearch progress on early autogenous shrinkage of cement-based cementitious materials. Applied Mechanics Reviews, 2013, 634: 2738-2741.

[175] Ma J, Dehn FShrinkage and creep behavior of an alkali‐activated slag concrete. Structural Concrete, 2017, 18: 801-810.

[176] Cui SA, Ye YZ, Dou ST, Fu FStudy on frost resistance of high performence concrete resistance to chloride ion. Acta Mechanica Sinica, 2012, 174–177: 1312-1316.

[177] Farnam Y, Bentz D, Hampton A, Weiss WJAcoustic emission and low-temperature calorimetry study of freeze and thaw behavior in cementitious materials exposed to sodium chloride salt. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2014, 2441: 81-90.

[178] Li ZYEvaluation of the Bearing Capacity of the Concrete Pier Exposed to the Freeze-Thaw Cycles. AMM, 2012, 166–169: 1216-1221.

[179] Fan YF, Zhang SY, Shah SPInfluence of Nanoclay on Concrete Subjected to Freeze-Thaw Cycles and Bond Behavior between Rebar and Concrete. KEM, 2016, 711: 256-262.

[180] Gao S, Liu LEffects of Freeze-Thaw Cycles on Axial Compression Behaviors of UHPC-RC Composite Columns. Materials, 2024, 17: 1843.

[181] Alrashidi RS, Voss MS, Alsubeai A, Alshammari E, Riding KAEvaluation of Non-Proprietary Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) to Resistance of Freeze-Thaw. CivilEng, 2025, 657.

[182] Zhu H, Yang S, Li W, Li Z, Fan J, Shen ZStudy of Mechanical Properties and Durability of Alkali-Activated Coal Gangue-Slag Concrete. Materials, 2020, 135576.

[183] Mehta PKMechanism of sulfate attack on portland cement concrete — Another look. Cement and Concrete Research, 1983, 13401-406.

[184] Santhanam M, Cohen MD, Olek JMechanism of sulfate attack: A fresh look: Part 1: Summary of experimental results. Cement and Concrete Research, 2002, 32: 915-921.

[185] Santhanam M, Cohen MD, Olek JMechanism of sulfate attack: A fresh look: Part 2. Proposed mechanisms. Cement and Concrete Research, 2003, 33: 341-346.

[186] Neville AThe confused world of sulfate attack on concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 2004, 34: 1275-1296.

[187] Juenger MCG, Siddique RRecent advances in understanding the role of supplementary cementitious materials in concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 2015, 78: 71-80.

[188] Graybeal, B. (2011). Ultra-High Performance Concrete. Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology.

[189] Wang Y, Yang Z, Quan Z, Zhang S, Niu D, Wu JSulfate resistance and life prediction of UHPC in western saline soil environment. Construction and Building Materials, 2025, 458139756

[190] Matos AMSusceptibility to expansive reactions of a greener UHPC: Micro to macro-scale study. Applied Sciences, 2022, 126252

[191] Adams MP, Ideker JHUsing Supplementary Cementitious Materials to Mitigate Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete with Recycled-Concrete Aggregate. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2020, 32: 04020209.

[192] Stanton TEExpansion of concrete through reaction between cement and aggregate. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1942, 10754-84.

[193] Thomas MThe effect of supplementary cementing materials on alkali-silica reaction: A review. Cement and Concrete Research, 2011, 41: 1224-1231.

[194] Möser, B., & Stark, J. (2008). Durability and microstructural development during hydration in ultra‑high performance concrete. In: M. G. Alexander, H.‑D. Beushausen, F. Dehn, & P. Moyo (Eds.), Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting II. CRC Press.

[195] Guang, Y, & Nguyen, V. T. (2012). Mitigation of autogenous shrinkage of ultra‑high performance concrete by rice husk ash. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 40(2), 212–216.

[196] Viyasun K, Anuradha R, Thangapandi K, Santhosh Kumar D, Sivakrishna A, Gobinath RInvestigation on performance of red mud based concrete. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, 39: 796-799.

[197] Amin M, Agwa IS, Mashaan N, Mahmood S, Abd-Elrahman MHInvestigation of the Physical Mechanical Properties and Durability of Sustainable Ultra-High Performance Concrete with Recycled Waste Glass. Sustainability, 2023, 15: 3085.

[198] Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Saad AIEffects of nano cotton stalk and palm leaf ashes on ultrahigh-performance concrete properties incorporating recycled concrete aggregates. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 302124196

[199] Awadeen M, Amin M, Bakr RH, Tahwia AMMechanical properties, attenuation coefficient, and microstructure of ultra high-performance heavyweight concrete for radiation shielding applications. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 82108395

[200] Ghanim AAJ, Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Agwa ISEffect of modified nano-titanium and fly ash on ultra-high-performance concrete properties. Structural Concrete, 2023, 246815-6832.

[201] Hakeem IY, Amin M, Agwa IS, Abd-Elrahman MH, Ibrahim OMO, Samy MUltra-high-performance concrete properties containing rice straw ash and nano eggshell powder. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2023, 19e02291

[202] European Commission, Joint Research Centre. (2015). European reference life‑cycle database.

[203] Singh R, Patel RStrength and durability performance of rice straw ash-based concrete: An approach for the valorization of agriculture waste. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2023

[204] Long G, Gao Y, Xie YDesigning more sustainable and greener self-compacting concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2015, 84: 301-306.

[205] Tiong HY, Lim SK, Lee YL, Ong CF, Yew MKEnvironmental impact and quality assessment of using eggshell powder incorporated in lightweight foamed concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2020

[206] Haque N, Norgate TEstimation of greenhouse gas emissions from ferroalloy production using life cycle assessment with particular reference to Australia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2013, 39: 220-230.

[207] Al-Akhras NM, Al-Akhras KM, Attom MFPerformance of olive waste ash concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Fire Safety Journal, 2009

[208] Rathanasalam VS, Hithani B, Rajendra MB, Raikhola AS, Bisalahalli ABrief review on cotton plant stalk ash-based concrete. Recent advances in building materials and technologies, 2024Springer Nature271281. 456

[209] Alnahhal MF, Alengaram UJ, Jumaat MZ, Abutaha F, Alqedra MA, Nayaka RRAssessment on engineering properties and CO2 emissions of recycled aggregate concrete incorporating waste products as supplements to Portland cement. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 203: 822-835.

[210] Shi Y, Long G, Ma C, Xie Y, He JDesign and preparation of ultra-high performance concrete with low environmental impact. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, 214: 633-643.

[211] Chiaia B, Fantilli AP, Guerini A, Volpatti G, Zampini DEco-mechanical index for structural concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2014, 67: 386-392.

[212] Hou W, Zhang Q, Zhuang Z, Zhang YSustainable reusing marble powder and granite powder in cement-based materials: A review. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2024, 12: 2484-2510.

[213] Siddique S, Chaudhary S, Shrivastava S, Gupta TSustainable utilisation of ceramic waste in concrete: Exposure to adverse conditions. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, 210: 246-255.

[214] Heidari SM, Anctil ACountry-specific carbon footprint and cumulative energy demand of metallurgical grade silicon production for silicon photovoltaics. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2022, 180106171

[215] Farchich, M. (2024). Functionality of recycled concrete fines: An experimental study on the mechanical performance of recycled concrete fines at mortar level [Master’s thesis, Delft University of Technology].

[216] Ecoinvent Centre. (2014). The ecoinvent LCA database. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories.

[217] Flower DJM, Sanjayan JGGreen house gas emissions due to concrete manufacture. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2007, 12: 282-288.

Funding

Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada

Rights & permissions

The Author(s)