Same Test, Different Stories? A Critical Look at vLa_max Modality-Specific Reliability

Abstract

Background

The maximal rate of blood lactate accumulation (vLa_max) is increasingly used as a marker of anaerobic glycolytic performance in various sports. Despite its conceptual relevance, the methodological robustness and reliability of current vLa_max testing protocols remain unclear.

Objective

This systematic review critically examines the reliability of vLa_max across different exercise modalities and evaluates the methodological consistency of applied testing protocols.

Methods

Following PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive database search (PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science) was conducted in April 2025 and updated in June 2025. Studies were included if they reported test–retest reliability metrics (e.g., ICC, CV) for vLa_max. Study quality was assessed using a modified COSMIN checklist adapted for sport science. Reliability data were synthesized using random-effects meta-analysis, including subgroup analyses and exploratory correlation analyses between reliability metrics.

Results

Eleven studies across cycling, running, rowing, and isokinetic testing were included. Reported ICCs for vLa_max ranged from 0.47 to 0.96, with CVs from 4.6% to 26.4%. Estimation of the alactic time interval (t_alac) showed the highest variability (ICC: –0.12 to 0.88). The pooled ICC across all modalities was 0.84 [95% CI: 0.80–0.88], with running protocols showing higher consistency than cycling. Exploratory analyses revealed that higher relative reliability (ICC) was generally associated with lower absolute error (CV and SDC), underscoring the importance of considering both aspects when interpreting vLa_max results. The methodological quality of included studies was moderate (50%–74%).

Conclusion

Current vLa_max protocols exhibit substantial variability in test–retest reliability, largely driven by inconsistencies in t_alac estimation and protocol design. The observed relationship between relative and absolute reliability emphasizes that small changes in vLa_max may fall within the margin of measurement error, limiting its standalone utility in applied diagnostics. Until validated and standardized procedures are established, vLa_max should not be used in isolation for performance diagnostics. Future research should prioritize experimental validation of core protocol variables to enable consistent and practically meaningful application in sport-specific contexts.

Keywords

vLa_max / Anaerobic capacity / Test reliability / Sprint performance / Glycolytic flux / Exercise testing

References

[1] Duffield R, Dawson B, Goodman C. Energy system contribution to 100-m and 200-m track running events. J Sci Med Sport, 2004, 7(3): 302-313

[2] Duffield R, Dawson B, Goodman C. Energy system contribution to 400-metre and 800-metre track running. J Sports Sci, 2005, 23(3): 299-307

[3] Held S, Rappelt L, Brockherde J, Donath L. Reliability of the maximal lactate accumulation rate in rowers. Int J Sports Med. 2023;45(3):238–44. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2206-4959.

[4] Spencer MR, Gastin PB. Energy system contribution during 200- to 1500-m running in highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2001, 33(1): 157-162

[5] Beneke R, Pollmann C, Bleif I, Leithauser RM, Hutler M. How anaerobic is the Wingate anaerobic test for humans?. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2002, 87(4–5): 388-392

[6] Foster C, deKoning JJ, Hettinga F, Lampen J, Dodge C, Bobbert M. Effect of competitive distance on energy expenditure during simulated competition. Int J Sports Med, 2004, 25(3): 198-204

[7] Gastin PB. Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise. Sports Med, 2001, 31(10): 725-741

[8] Haugen T, Sandbakk O, Enoksen E, Seiler S, Tonnessen E. Crossing the golden training divide: the science and practice of training world-class 800- and 1500-m runners. Sports Med, 2021, 51(9): 1835-1854

[9] Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Boobis LH, Lakomy HK. Contribution of phosphocreatine and aerobic metabolism to energy supply during repeated sprint exercise. J Appl Physiol, 1996, 80(3): 876-884

[10] Coso JD, Mora-Rodriguez R. Validity of cycling peak power as measured by a short-sprint test versus the Wingate anaerobic test. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 2006, 31(3): 186-189

[11] Craig NP, Pyke FS, Norton KI. Specificity of test duration when assessing the anaerobic lactacid capacity of high-performance track cyclists. Int J Sports Med, 1989, 10(4): 237-242

[12] de Poli RAB, Miyagi WE, Zagatto AM. Anaerobic capacity is associated with metabolic contribution and mechanical output measured during the Wingate test. J Hum Kinet, 2021, 79: 65-75

[13] Langley J, Haase R, Nitzsche N, Porter M. Methodological approaches in testing maximal lactate accumulation rate - νLamax: a systematic review. J Sci Cycl, 2025, 14: 1-40

[14] Mader A. Glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation as a function of cytosolic phosphorylation state and power output of the muscle cell. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2003, 88(4–5): 317-338

[15] Heck H, Schulz H, Bartmus U. Diagnostics of anaerobic power and capacity. Eur J Sport Sci, 2003, 3(3): 1-23

[16] Mader A. Aussagekraft der laktatleistungskurve in kombination mit anaeroben tests zur bestimmung der stoffwechselkapazität. In: Classing D, Weicker, HBD, eds. Stellenwert der laktatbestimmung in der leistungsdiagnostik. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag; 1994.

[17] Wackerhage H, Gehlert S, Schulz H, Weber S, Ring-Dimitriou S, Heine O. Lactate thresholds and the simulation of human energy metabolism: contributions by the Cologne Sports Medicine Group in the 1970s and 1980s. Front Physiol, 2022, 13 899670

[18] Baker JS, McCormick MC, Robergs RA. Interaction among skeletal muscle metabolic energy systems during intense exercise. J Nutr Metab, 2010, 2010 905612

[19] Mader A. Eine Theorie zur berechnung der dynamik und des steady state von phosphorylierungszustand und stoffwechselaktivität der muskelzelle als folge des energiebedarfs. Deutscher Sporthochschule: Monografie; 1984.

[20] Wackerhage H, Kabasakalis A, Seiler S, Heck H. Is the vLamax for glycolysis what the VO₂ max is for oxidative phosphorylation? Sports Med. 2025;55(8):1853–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-025-02259-6.

[21] Heck H, Wackerhage H. The origin of the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS). BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil, 2024, 16(1 36

[22] Atkinson G, Nevill AM. Statistical methods for assessing measurement error (reliability) in variables relevant to sports medicine. Sports Med, 1998, 264): 217-238

[23] Hauser T. Einfluss der Belastungsdauer bei sprintbelastungen auf die laktatbildungsrate. Dtsch Z Sportmed, 2009, 60: 177

[24] Langley JO, Ng SC, Todd EE, Porter MS. V la(max): determining the optimal test duration for maximal lactate formation rate during all-out sprint cycle ergometry. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2024, 124(8): 2461-2472

[25] Porter M, Langley J. The relationship between muscle oxygen saturation kinetics and maximal blood lactate accumulation rate across varying sprint cycle durations. Eur J Sport Sci, 2025, 25(3 e12242

[26] Nitzsche N, Baumgartel L, Maiwald C, Schulz H. Reproducibility of blood lactate concentration rate under isokinetic force loads. Sports (Basel). 2018;6(4):150. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040150

[27] Quittmann OJ, Abel T, Vafa R, Mester J, Schwarz YM, Struder HK. Maximal lactate accumulation rate and post-exercise lactate kinetics in handcycling and cycling. Eur J Sport Sci, 2021, 214): 539-551

[28] Quittmann OJ, Schwarz YM, Mester J, Foitschik T, Abel T, Struder HK. Maximal lactate accumulation rate in all-out exercise differs between cycling and running. Int J Sports Med, 2021, 42(4): 314-322

[29] Dunst AK, Hesse C, Feldmann A, Holmberg HC. A novel approach to determining the alactic time span in connection with assessment of the maximal rate of lactate accumulation in elite track cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 2023, 18: 157-163

[30] Hauser T, Adam J, Schulz H. Comparison of calculated and experimental power in maximal lactate-steady state during cycling. Theor Biol Med Model, 2014, 11 25

[31] Quittmann OJ, Appelhans D, Abel T, Struder HK. Evaluation of a sport-specific field test to determine maximal lactate accumulation rate and sprint performance parameters in running. J Sci Med Sport, 2020, 23(1): 27-34

[32] Yang WH, Park SY, Kim T, Jeon HJ, Heine O, Gehlert S. A modified formula using energy system contributions to calculate pure maximal rate of lactate accumulation during a maximal sprint cycling test. Front Physiol, 2023, 14 1147321

[33] Bonaventura JM, Sharpe K, Knight E, Fuller KL, Tanner RK, Gore CJ. Reliability and accuracy of six hand-held blood lactate analysers. J Sports Sci Med, 2015, 14(1): 203-214

[34] Hart S, Drevets K, Alford M, Salacinski A, Hunt BE. A method-comparison study regarding the validity and reliability of the Lactate Plus analyzer. BMJ Open. 2013;3(2):e001899.. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001899.

[35] Zadow EK, Kitic CM, Wu SS, Smith ST, Fell JW. Validity of power settings of the Wahoo KICKR Power Trainer. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 2016, 11(8): 1115-1117

[36] Hirvonen J, Rehunen S, Rusko H, Harkonen M. Breakdown of high-energy phosphate compounds and lactate accumulation during short supramaximal exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol, 1987, 56(3): 253-259

[37] Dunst AK, Manunzio C, Feldmann A, Hesse C. Applications of near-infrared spectroscopy in "anaerobic" diagnostics - SmO(2) kinetics reflect PCr dephosphorylation and correlate with maximal lactate accumulation and maximal pedalling rate. Biol Sport, 2023, 40(4): 1019-1031

[38] Jones NL, McCartney N, Graham T, Spriet LL, Kowalchuk JM, Heigenhauser GJ, et al. . Muscle performance and metabolism in maximal isokinetic cycling at slow and fast speeds. J Appl Physiol (1985), 1985, 59(1): 132-136

[39] Haase R, Dunst AK, Nitzsche N. The influence of pedaling frequency on blood lactate accumulation in cycling sprints. Int J Sports Med, 2024, 45(8): 608-615

[40] Haase R, Dunst AK, Nitzsche N. Blood lactate accumulation during maximal cycling sprints and its relationship to sprint performance characteristics. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2025;125(8):2197-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-025-05755-9.

[41] Harnish CR, Swensen TC, King D. Reliability of the 15-s maximal lactate accumulation rate (VLamax) test for cycling. Physiologia, 2023, 3(4): 542-551

[42] Bland JM, Altman DG. Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet, 1986, 1(8476): 307-310

[43] Hopkins WG. Measures of reliability in sports medicine and science. Sports Med, 2000, 30(1): 1-15

[44] Lin LI. A concordance correlation coefficient to evaluate reproducibility. Biometrics, 1989, 45(1): 255-268

[45] Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. . The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 2021, 372 n71

[46] Fernandez Jarillo I, Lomero-Arenas T. Reliability of estimating maximal glycolytic power using the maximal lactate accumulation rate (VLamax): a systematic review. Retos, 2025, 66: 448-455

[47] Quittmann OJ. Maximal lactate accumulation rate ( c La(max)): current evidence and future directions for exercise testing and training. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2026;126(1):1–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-025-06022-7.

[48] McKay AKA, Stellingwerff T, Smith ES, Martin DT, Mujika I, Goosey-Tolfrey VL, et al. . Defining training and performance caliber: a participant classification framework. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 2022, 17(2): 317-331

[49] Adam J, Ohmichen M, Ohmichen E, Rother J, Muller UM, Hauser T, et al. . Reliability of the calculated maximal lactate steady state in amateur cyclists. Biol Sport, 2015, 32(2): 97-102

[50] Harnish C, Swensen T, King D. Methodological changes to alactic time estimation fail to improve the reliability of the 15-s maximal lactate accumulation rate (̇Lamax) test for cycling. J Sci Cycl, 2024

[51] Meixner B, Nusser V, Koehler K, Sablain M, Boone J, Sperlich B. Reliability of power output, maximal rate of capillary blood lactate accumulation, and phosphagen contribution time following 15-s sprint cycling in amateur cyclists. Physiol Rep, 2024, 12(10 e16086

[52] Sablain M, Sperlich B, Meixner B, Caen K, Vermeire K, Boone J. Evaluating the maximal rate of lactate accumulation and estimated maximal lactate steady state in cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2025, 1258): 2173-2178

[53] Wawer C, Heine O, Predel H-G, Park D-S, Yang W-H. Determination of anaerobic capacity - reliability and validity of sprint running tests. Exerc Sci, 2020, 29(2): 129-137

[54] Archacki D, Zieliński J, Ciekot-Sołtysiak M, Zarębska EA, Kusy K. Sex differences in the energy system contribution during print exercise in speed-power and endurance athletes. J Clin Med. 2024;13(16):4812.

[55] Clark B, Macdermid P. VLa max correlates strongly with glycolytic performance. Res Q Exerc Sport, 2025, 96(4): 660-667

[56] Dunst AK, Hesse C, Ueberschar O, Holmberg HC. A novel approach to the determination of time- and fatigue-dependent efficiency during maximal cycling sprints. Sports (Basel). 2023;11(2):29. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11020029.

[57] Fischer J, Havecker F, Ji S, Wahl P, Keller S. Modeling lactate threshold in cycling-influence of sex, maximal oxygen uptake, and cost of cycling in young athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2025;125(8):2145–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-025-05744-y.

[58] Hommel J, Ohmichen S, Rudolph UM, Hauser T, Schulz H. Effects of six-week sprint interval or endurance training on calculated power in maximal lactate steady state. Biol Sport, 2019, 36(1): 47-54

[59] Ji S, Sommer A, Bloch W, Wahl P. Comparison and performance validation of calculated and established anaerobic lactate thresholds in running. Medicina (Kaunas), 2021, 57(10): 1117

[60] Manunzio C, Mester J, Kaiser W, Wahl P. Training intensity distribution and changes in performance and physiology of a 2nd place finisher team of the race across America over a 6 month preparation period. Front Physiol, 2016, 7: 642

[61] Meixner BJ, Nusser V, Koehler K, Sablain M, Boone J, Sperlich B. Relationship of peak capillary blood lactate accumulation and body composition in determining the mechanical energy equivalent of lactate during sprint cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2024, 124(11): 3399-3407

[62] Meixner B, Stegmaier J, Renner P, Koehler K, Yang WH, Sperlich B. Supplementation of creatine monohydrate improves sprint performance but has no effect on glycolytic contribution: a nonrandomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial in trained cyclists. Curr Dev Nutr, 2025, 9(2 104561

[63] Micke F, Muhlenhoff S, Swoboda A, Held S. Comparison of alternative νLamax determination approaches in cycling and rowing. J Sports Sci, 2025, 4323): 2952-2962

[64] Nitzsche N, Baumgärtel L, Schulz H. Comparison of maximum lactate formation rates in ergometer sprint and maximum strength loads. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 2018, 2018: 13-18

[65] Poffe C, Van Dael K, Van Schuylenbergh R. INSCYD physiological performance software is valid to determine the maximal lactate steady state in male and female cyclists. Front Sports Act Living, 2024, 6 1376876

[66] Quittmann OJ, Abel T, Zeller S, Foitschik T, Struder HK. Lactate kinetics in handcycling under various exercise modalities and their relationship to performance measures in able-bodied participants. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2018, 118(7): 1493-1505

[67] Reinpõld K, Rannama I, Port K. Comparative bilateral measurements of vastus lateralis muscle oxygen desaturation kinetics during 30 s sprint cycling exercise: effects of age and performance. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2024;9(2):104.

[68] Wahl P, Manunzio C, Vogt F, Strutt S, Volmary P, Bloch W, et al. . Accuracy of a modified lactate minimum test and reverse lactate threshold test to determine maximal lactate steady state. J Strength Cond Res, 2017, 31: 3489-3496

[69] Pohl A, Schunemann F, Schaaf K, Yang WH, Heck H, Heine O, et al. Increased resting lactate levels and reduced carbohydrate intake cause nuLa.max underestimation by reducing net lactate accumulation-a pilot study in young adults. Physiol Rep. 2024;12:e70020. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.70020.

[70] Quittmann OJ, Foitschik T, Vafa R, Freitag FJ, Sparmann N, Nolte S, et al. Is maximal lactate accumulation rate promising for improving 5000-m prediction in running? Int J Sports Med. 2023;44(4):268–79. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1958-3876.

[71] Wagner C-M, Röhrs D, Sandbakk Ø, Katz A, Wittke A, Keiner M. Performance-determining variables of a simulated skimo sprint competition in elite junior skimo athletes. Appl Sci, 2024, 14(5 1882

[72] Wagner CM, Osborne JO, Sandbakk O, Schiemann S, Rohrs D, Schmidt T, et al. Sex differences in double poling performance: the role of upper-body strength and endurance in youth elite cross-country skiers and biathletes. Eur J Sport Sci. 2025;25(4):e12253. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsc.12253.

[73] Schunemann F, Park SY, Wawer C, Theis C, Yang WH, Gehlert S. Diagnostics of νLa.max and glycolytic energy contribution indicate individual characteristics of anaerobic glycolytic energy metabolism contributing to rowing performance. Metabolites, 2023, 133): 317

[74] Keller S, Wahl P. Higher relevance of mechanical determinants for short-distance performance and metabolic determinants for middle-distance performance in female adolescent swimmers at national level. Sci Rep, 2025, 15: 7132

[75] Mavroudi M, Kabasakalis A, Petridou A, Mougios V. Blood lactate and maximal lactate accumulation rate at three sprint swimming distances in highly trained and elite swimmers. Sports (Basel). 2023;11(4):87. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040087.

[76] Sengoku Y, Shinno A, Kim J, Homoto K, Nakazono Y, Tsunokawa T, Hirai N, Nobue A, Ishikawa M. The relationship between maximal lactate accumulation rate and sprint performance parameters in male competitive swimmers. Front Sports Act Living, 2024, 6 1483659

[77] Sperlich B, Zinner C, Heilemann I, Kjendlie PL, Holmberg HC, Mester J. High-intensity interval training improves VO(2peak), maximal lactate accumulation, time trial and competition performance in 9-11-year-old swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2010, 110(5): 1029-1036

[78] Teixeira CL, Mezzaroba PV, Peserico CS, Machado FA. Effect of photobiomodulation on maximal lactate production rate on swimmers: a randomized, crossover, double-blind and placebo-controlled study. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física 28; 2022.

[79] Meixner B, Matzka M, Sperlich B. Comparison of maximal glycolytic rate from ergometer to on-water sprinting in elite canoe polo players. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 2025, 50: 1-10

[80] Tanner RK, Fuller KL, Ross ML. Evaluation of three portable blood lactate analysers: lactate pro, lactate scout and lactate plus. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2010, 109(3): 551-559

Funding

Universität Hamburg (1037)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)