Decarbonising Fishing Vessels with Novel Electrofuel Blends: A Well-to-Wake Life Cycle Assessment

Abstract

Fishing vessels are difficult to decarbonise because of their variable operating profiles, dependence on diesel engines, and frequent operation in coastal areas. This study evaluates novel Higher Oxygenated Electrofuel (HOEF) blends as a potential drop-in pathway for reducing emissions from fishing vessels. A well-to-wake life cycle assessment is applied to two representative Adriatic fishing vessels, a purse seiner and a trawler, using one complete fishing cycle as the functional unit. Marine Gas Oil is used as the reference fuel, while biomass-to-liquid fuel, e-methanol, and HOEF-Marine Gas Oil blends are considered as alternatives. The results show that HOEF-Marine Gas Oil blends can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and local air pollution impacts, with the 50 vol.% alcohol-based HOEF I blend achieving the best overall performance. Compared with Marine Gas Oil, this blend reduces global warming potential by up to 42%, acidification potential by about 42%, aerosol formation potential by up to 29%, and eutrophication potential by about 9%. Sensitivity analysis confirms that these benefits strongly depend on the electricity mix used for electrofuel production. The findings indicate that HOEF-Marine Gas Oil blends may represent a promising transitional pathway for lower-emission fishing vessels, provided that production is based on low-carbon electricity.

Keywords

Decarbonisation / Alternative fuels / HOEF-MGO blends / LCA / Environmental assessment / Fishing vessels

References

[1] Akac A, Anagnostopoulou A, Kappatos V. Investigation of methanol as long-Term energy efficiency solution for maritime decarbonization in container vessels. Transportation Research Procedia, 2025, 83: 170-177.

[2] Balcombe P, Staffell I, Kerdan IG, Speirs JF, Brandon NP, Hawkes AD. How can LNG-fuelled ships meet decarbonisation targets? An environmental and economic analysis. Energy, 2021, 227: 120462.

[3] Barone G, Buonomano A, Del Papa G, Giuzio GF, Maka R, Palombo A, Russo G. Steering shipping towards energy sustainability: alternative fuels in decarbonization policies. Energy, 2025, 331: 136827.

[4] Chen J, Fei Y, Wan Z. The relationship between the development of global maritime fleets and GHG emission from shipping. Journal of Environmental Management, 2019, 242: 31-39.

[5] Colelli L, Dell’Aversano S, Bassano C, Vanga G, Gallucci K, Vilardi G. Liquid e-fuels for a sustainable future: A comprehensive review of production, regulation, and technological innovation. Energy Conversion and Management, 2026, 347: 120529.

[6] Endres S, Maes F, Hopkins F, Houghton K, Mårtensson EM, Oeffner J, Quack B, Singh P, Turner D. A new perspective at the ship-air-sea-interface: The environmental impacts of exhaust gas scrubber discharge. Frontiers in Marine Science, 2018, 5: 139.

[7] E-TANDEMTechno-economic assessment of e-fuel production concept, 2026

[8] E-TANDEMDeliverable D3.1-Fuel analytics and blending behaviour, 2025

[9] E-TANDEMDeliverable D3.2-Fuel ignition behaviour, 2025

[10] E-TANDEMDeliverable D3.3-Fuel-components interaction, 2025

[11] E-TANDEME-TANDEM Project-Electrofuels from Tandem Catalysis and High-Pressure Co-Electrolysis, 2022

[12] European CommissionCommunication on the Energy Transition of the EU Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector, 2023

[13] European CommissionAbout the Energy Transition Partnership for EU fisheries and aquaculture, 2023

[14] European CommissionThe European Green Deal, 2019

[15] European Parliament and Council of the European UnionDirective (EU) 2023/2413 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 October 2023 amending Directive (EU) 2018/2001 as regards the promotion of energy from renewable sources, 2023

[16] European Parliament and Council of the European UnionRegulation (EU) 2023/1805 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 September 2023 on the use of renewable and low-carbon fuels in maritime transport and amending Directive 2009/16/EC, 2023

[17] European Parliament and Council of the European UnionRegulation (EU) 2023/1804 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 September 2023 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure and repealing Directive 2014/94/EU, 2023

[18] European Parliament and Council of the European UnionDirective (EU) 2023/959 of 10 May 2023 amending Directive 2003/87/EC establishing a system for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Union, 2023

[19] Galimova T, Ram M, Bogdanov D, Fasihi M, Khalili S, Gulagi A, Karjunen H, Mensah TNO, Breyer C. Global demand analysis for carbon dioxide as raw material from key industrial sources and direct air capture to produce renewable electricitybased fuels and chemicals. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2022, 373: 133920.

[20] GREET∣Department of Energy. https://www.energy.gov/cmei/greet (accessed 5.17.26)

[21] Hassellöv IM, Turner DR, Lauer A, Corbett JJ. Shipping contributes to ocean acidification. Geophysical Research Letters, 2013, 401127312736.

[22] Huang Z, Zhang W, Han D, Zhu L, Lin H, Guan B. Dimethyl ether: A promising fuel for marine engines. Frontiers in Energy, 2025, 19128.

[23] Ingwersen A, Hahn Menacho AJ, Pfister S, Peel JN, Sacchi R, Moretti C. Prospective life cycle assessment of costeffective pathways for achieving the FuelEU Maritime Regulation targets. Science of the Total Environment, 2025, 958: 177880.

[24] International Maritime OrganizationResolution MEPC. 377 (80). 2023 IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships, 2023

[25] ISO 14040Environmental management-Life cycle assessment-Principles and framework, 2006

[26] ISO 14044Environmental management-Life cycle assessment-Requirements and guidelines, 2006

[27] Jovanović I, Vladimir N, Perčić M, Koričan M. The feasibility of autonomous low-emission ro-ro passenger shipping in the Adriatic Sea. Ocean Engineering, 2022, 247: 110712.

[28] Koričan M, Perčić M, Vladimir N, Alujević N, Fan A. Alternative power options for improvement of the environmental friendliness of fishing trawlers. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 2022, 10121882.

[29] Koričan M, Vladimir N, Fan A. Investigation of the energy efficiency of fishing vessels: Case study of the fishing fleet in the Adriatic Sea. Ocean Engineering, 2023, 286: 115734.

[30] Koričan M, Vladimir N, Hadžić N, Ložar V. Life-cycle cost assessment of hull protection technologies considering their effect on the environmental friendliness of fishing vessels. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2024, 209: 117137.

[31] Lee H, Lee J, Roh G, Lee S, Choung C, Kang H. Comparative life cycle assessments and economic analyses of alternative marine fuels: Insights for practical strategies. Sustainability (Switzerland), 2024, 1652114

[32] Lindstad E, Lagemann B, Rialland A, Gamlem GM, Valland A. Reduction of maritime GHG emissions and the potential role of E-fuels. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 2021, 101: 103075.

[33] Maniscalco MP, Longo S, Cellura M, Miccichè G, Ferraro M. Critical review of life cycle assessment of hydrogen production pathways. Environments, 2024, 116108.

[34] Mantziaris S, Tzouramani I, Liontakis A, Sintori A. A comparative sustainability performance assessment of the fishing fleet segments: The case of the Greek fishing sector. Fisheries Research, 2025, 289: 107484.

[35] Mei F, Renzi M, Bonifazi M, Bonifazi F, Pepe N, D’Allura A, Brusasca G, Viegi G, Forastiere F. Long-term effects of air pollutants on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in a port city along the Adriatic sea. BMC Pulmonary Medicine, 2023, 231395.

[36] Meresht NB, Paydari M, Shahbazi H, Safavi SR, McTaggart-Cowan G, Hosseini V. Assessing the air pollution co-impacts of hybridizing coastal ferry powertrains on ports and coastal communities. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2026, 222: 118752.

[37] Mueller N, Westerby M, Nieuwenhuijsen M. Health impact assessments of shipping and port-sourced air pollution on a global scale: A scoping literature review. Environmental Research, 2023, 216: 114460.

[38] Mukherjee A, Bruijnincx P, Junginger M. Techno-economic competitiveness of renewable fuel alternatives in the marine sector. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2023, 174: 113127.

[39] Mustakim A, Mangan J, Palacin R. Assessing the role of shortsea shipping and ports in maritime well-to-wake emissions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2025, 219: 118253.

[40] Omstedt A, Edman M, Claremar B, Rutgersson A. Modelling the contributions to marine acidification from deposited SO_x, NO_x, and NH_x in the Baltic Sea: Past and present situations. Continental Shelf Research, 2015, 111: 234-249.

[41] openLCA (2026) https://www.openlca.org/(accessed 5.17.26)

[42] Parker RWR, Blanchard JL, Gardner C, Green BS, Hartmann K, Tyedmers PH, Watson RA. Fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions of world fisheries. Nature Climate Change, 2018, 84333337.

[43] Pastore LM. Towards industrial decarbonisation: Assessing the potential of hydrogen and electrofuels in hard-to-abate sectors. Energy, 2026, 359: 141472.

[44] Perčić M, Caldogno R, Demetriou M, Vladimir N. Effect of the local electricity mix on the environmental footprint of the initial stage of electrofuel production process. E3S Web of Conferences, 2025, 636: 03001.

[45] Perčić M, Vladimir N, Fan A. Life-cycle cost assessment of alternative marine fuels to reduce the carbon footprint in shortsea shipping: A case study of Croatia. Applied Energy, 2020, 279: 115848.

[46] Perčić M, Vladimir N, Jovanović I, Koričan M. Application of fuel cells with zero-carbon fuels in short-sea shipping. Applied Energy, 2022, 309: 118463.

[47] Perčić M, Vladimir N, Koričan M, Jovanović I, Haramina T. Alternative fuels for the marine sector and their applicability for purse seiners in a life-cycle framework. Applied Sciences, 2023, 132413068.

[48] Rosendal MB, Münster M, Bramstoft R. Renewable fuel production and the impact of hydrogen infrastructure-A case study of the Nordics. Energy, 2024, 297: 131234.

[49] Sevim C, Zincir B. Lifecycle emissions of fossil fuels and biofuels for maritime transportation: A requirement analysis. Decarbonization of Maritime Transport, 20232744.

[50] Sjerić M, Koričan M, Vladimir N. Environmental footprint of hydrogen- and methanol-powered fishing vessel under steady and transient engine operation. Ocean Engineering, 2026, 345: 123864.

[51] Sorte S, Rodrigues V, Borrego C, Monteiro A. Impact of harbour activities on local air quality: A review. Environmental Pollution, 2020, 257: 113542.

[52] Suhara A, KaryadiHerawan SG, Tirta A, Idris M, Roslan MF, Putra NR, Hananto AL, Veza I. Biodiesel sustainability: Review of progress and challenges of biodiesel as sustainable biofuel. Clean Technologies, 2024, 63886906.

[53] Tuğdemir Kök G, Celik MS, Koc E. Evaluating IMO 2030 strategies for environmental sustainability in maritime transportation using ANP method. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2025, 215: 117847.

[54] Vodopia D, Verones F, Askham C, Larsen RB. Retrieval operations of derelict fishing gears give insight on the impact on marine life. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2024, 201: 116268.

[55] Wan Z, el Makhloufi A, Chen Y, Tang J. Decarbonizing the international shipping industry: Solutions and policy recommendations. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2018, 126: 428-435.

[56] Wang H, Zhou P, Jeong B, Mesbahi A, Mujeeb-Ahmed MP, Jang H, Giannakis A, Sykaras K, Papadakis A. Life cycle analysis of ammonia fuelled ship-case ship studies for marine vessels. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2025, 520: 146105.

[57] Xu L, Xu S, Bai XS, Repo JA, Hautala S, Hyvönen J. Performance and emission characteristics of an ammonia/diesel dual-fuel marine engine. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2023, 185: 113631.

[58] Zincir BA, Arslanoglu Y. Comparative life cycle assessment of alternative marine fuels. Fuel, 2024, 358: 129995.

Rights & permissions

Harbin Engineering University and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature