An Evaluation of the Effects of Human Factors on Pilotage Operations Safety

Abstract

In recent years, marine pilotage accidents occurring on a worldwide basis as a result of human error have not been ceased to transpire, despite advances in technology and a significant set of international conventions, regulations, and recommendations to reduce them. This paper aims to investigate the effect of human factors on the safety of maritime pilotage operations. The human factors that affect the operators who are performing ships’ berthing operations have also been examined in detail. In this study, in order to determine the causes of human-related errors occurred in maritime pilotage accidents, a comprehensive literature review is carried out, and a considerable number of real past case examples and an analysis of the maritime accident investigation reports regarding pilotage operations events that occurred between 1995 and 2015 have been reviewed. To validate the identified human-related risk factors (HCFs) and explore other contributory factors, survey questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with domain experts have been conducted. A structural hierarchy diagram for the identified risk factors (HCFs) has been developed and validated through experienced experts belonging to the maritime sector. A questionnaire for pair-wise comparison is carried out and analysed using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) approach to evaluate the weight and rank the importance of the identified human causal factors. The findings of this study will benefit the maritime industry, by identifying a new database on causal factors that are contributing to the occurrence of maritime pilotage disasters. The database can be used as a stand-alone reference or help implement effective risk reduction strategies to reduce the human error, that might occur during pilotage operations.

Keywords

Pilotage accidents / Human factor / Pilotage operations / Maritime safety / Analytic hierarchy process (AHP)

References

[1] Armstrong M (2007) Practical ship-handling, 3rd edn. Brown, Son & Ferguson Ltd

[2] Akyuz E, Celik M. Utilization of cognitive map in modelling human error in marine accident analysis and prevention. Saf Sci, 2014, 70: 19-28

[3] Akhtar MJ, Utne IB. Reducing the probability of ship grounding: which measure to undertake? WMU J Marit Aff, 2014, 13(1): 27-42

[4] Akyuz E. A hybrid accident analysis method to assess potential navigational contingencies: The case of ship grounding. Saf Sci, 2015, 79: 268-276

[5] Berg N, Storgård J, Lappalainen J (2013) The impact of ship crew on maritime safety. Centre for Maritime Studies, University of Turkey

[6] Celik M, Cebi S. Analytical HFACS for investigating human errors in shipping accidents. Accid Anal Prev, 2009, 41(1): 66-75

[7] CAMSS (2012) Pilot-on-board. Available at: http://camss.jblfmu.edu.ph/index.php/my-articles/83-pilot-on-board. [Accessed 11 April 2016]

[8] Chauvin C, Lardjane S, Morel G, Clostermann PJ, Langard B. Human and organizational factors in maritime accidents: analysis of collisions at sea using the HFACS. Accid Anal Prev, 2013, 59: 26-37

[9] Ćorović B, Djurovic P. Marine accidents researched through human factor prism. Promet-Traffic Transp, 2013, 25(4): 369-377

[10] Chen ST. An approach of identifying the common human and organizational factors (HOFs) among a group of marine accidents using GRA and HFACS-MA. J Transp Saf Secur, 2020, 12(10): 1252-1294

[11] Darbra RM, Crawford JFE, Haley CW, Morrison RJ. Safety culture and hazard risk perception of Australian and New Zealand maritime pilots. Mar Policy, 2007, 31: 736-745

[12] Ding JF, Kuo JF, Shyu WH, Chou CC. Evaluating determinants of attractiveness and their cause-effect relationships for container ports in Taiwan: users’ perspectives. Marit Policy Manag, 2019, 46(4): 466-490

[13] Demirel H. An evaluation of human error probabilities for critical failures in auxiliary systems of marine diesel engines. J Mar Sci Appl, 2020, 20(1): 128-137

[14] Erol S, Başar E. The analysis of ship accident occurred in Turkish search and rescue area by using decision tree. Marit Policy Manag, 2015, 42(4): 377-388

[15] Eliopoulou E, Papanikolaou A, Voulgarellis M. Statistical analysis of ship accidents and review of safety level. Saf Sci, 2016, 85: 282-292

[16] Ferguson S, Lamond N, Kandelaars K, Jay S, Dawson D. The impact of short, irregular sleep opportunities at sea on the alertness. Chronobiol Int, 2008, 25(2): 399-411

[17] Fu S, Yan X, Zhang D, Zhang M. Risk influencing factors analysis of Arctic maritime transportation systems: a Chinese perspective. Marit Policy Manag, 2018, 45(4): 439-455

[18] Gill GW, Wahner CM. The Herald of Free Enterprise casualty and its effect on maritime safety philosophy. Mar Technol Soc J, 2012, 46(6): 72-84

[19] Gard (2014) Pilotage. Available at http://www.gard.no/Content/73002/Pilotage [Accessed 5 October 2016]

[20] Gerigk AT, Hejmlic A. Human factor modelling in the risk assessment of port manoeuvers. Int J Mar Navig Saf Sea Transp, 2015, 9(3): 427-433

[21] Graziano A, Teixeira AP, Guedes SC. Classification of human errors in grounding and collision accidents using the TRACEr taxonomy. Saf Sci, 2016, 86: 245-257

[22] Hetherington C, Flin R, Mearns K. Safety in shipping: the human element. J Saf Res, 2006, 37(4): 401-411

[23] Hsu WKK. Ports’ service attributes for ship navigation safety. J Saf Sci, 2012, 50(2): 244-252

[24] IMO (2003) Human element vision. Principles and goals for the organization. Available at: https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/HumanElement/Pages/VisionPrinciplesGoals-Default.aspx. Accessed 21 Oct 2016

[25] IMO (2016) Pilotage. Available at http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/Pilotage.aspx. [Accessed: 21 September 2016]

[26] Islam R, Khan F, Abbassi R, Garaniya V. Human error assessment during maintenance operations of marine systems–what are the effective environmental factors? Saf Sci, 2018, 107: 85-98

[27] Lee HH, Kim CS. An analysis on the relative importance of the risk factors for the marine traffic environment using analytic hierarchy process. J Korean Soc Mar Environ Saf, 2013, 19(3): 257-263

[28] Luo M, Shin SH. Half-century research developments in maritime accidents: future directions. Accid Anal Prev, 2016, 123: 448-460

[29] Mahmoodzadeh S, Shahrabi J, Pariazar M, Zaeri MS. Project selection by using fuzzy AHP and TOPSIS technique. World Acad Sci Eng Technol, 2007, 1(6): 270-275

[30] Macrae C. Human factors at sea: common patterns of error in groundings and collisions. Marit Policy Manag, 2009, 36(1): 21-38

[31] Murdoch E, Dand I, Clarke C (2012) A master’s guide to berthing. The standard P&I club. Available at: A Masters Guide to Berthing. 2nd edition-2pd. [Accessed on 02 Oct 2016]

[32] Pennock C (2015) Pilots- top safety issues 2005–2013. Email to Oraith, H. 18 August 2015

[33] Mazaheri A, Montewka J, Nisula J, Kujala P. Usability of accident and incident reports for evidence-based risk modelling–a case study on ship grounding reports. Saf Sci, 2015, 76: 202-214

[34] Muhisn AZ, Omar M, Ahmad M, Muhisn AS. Team leader selection by using an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) technique. J Softw, 2015, 10(1): 1216-1227

[35] Noroozi A, Khan F, MacKinnon S, Amyotte P, Deacon T. Determination of human error probabilities in maintenance procedures of a pump. Process Saf Environ Prot, 2014, 9(2): 131

[36] Kandemir C, Celik M, Akyuz E, Aydin O. Application of human reliability analysis to repair & maintenance operations on-board ships: the case of HFO purifier overhauling. Appl Ocean Res, 2019, 88: 317-325

[37] Kandemir C, Celik M. Determining the error producing conditions in marine engineering maintenance and operations through HFACS-MMO. Reliab Eng Syst Saf, 2021, 206: 107308

[38] Pak YJ, Yeo TG, Oh WS, Yang Z. Port safety evaluation from a captain’s perspective: The Korean experience. Saf Sci, 2015, 72: 172-181

[39] Özdemir Ü, Güneroğlu A. Strategic approach model for investigating the cause of maritime accidents. Promet - Traffic Transp, 2015, 27(2): 113-123

[40] Riahi R, Bonsall S, Jenkinson I, Wang J. A seafarer’s reliability assessment incorporating subjective judgments. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part M: The journal of Engineering of the Maritime Environment, 2012, 226(4): 313-334

[41] Saaty TL (1980) The Analytic Hierarchy Process. Columbus: McGraw Hill International

[42] Saaty T. Decision Making and Priority Theory with Analytic Hierarchy Process, 1994, Pittsburg: RWS Publications

[43] Saaty TL (2001) Decision Making for Leaders. The analytic hierarchy process for decision in a complex world. RWS Publications, Pittsburgh

[44] Saaty TL, Ozedemir MS. Why the magic number seven plus or minus two. Math Comput Model, 2003, 38: 233-244

[45] Saaty TL. Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. Int J Serv Sci, 2008, 1(1): 83-98

[46] Saeed F, Bury A, Bonsall S, Riahi R. The application of AHP in the development of a taxonomy of merchant marine deck officers’ non-technical skills (NTS). Logistics & Sustainable Transport, 2019, 10(1): 55-70

[47] Standard P&I Club (2012) Pilotage issues. Available at www.standard-club.com/media/1558298/pilotage-issues.pdf. [Accessed 21 September 2016]

[48] TSB (1995) A safety study of the operational relationship between ship masters/watchkeeping officers and marine pilots. TSB Study SM9501. Available at http://www.tsb.gc.ca/eng/rapports-reports/marine/etudes-tudies/ms9501/ms9501.asp. [Accessed 16 October 2016]

[49] Tzannatos E, Kokotos D. Analysis of accidents in Greek shipping during the pre-and post-ISM period. Mar Policy, 2009, 33: 679-684

[50] Tzannatos E. Human element and accidents in Greek shipping. J Navig, 2010, 63: 119-127

[51] Uğurlu Ö, Köse E, Yıldırım U, Yüksekyıldız E. Marine accident analysis for collision and grounding in oil tanker using FTA method. Mar Policy Manag, 2015, 42(2): 163-185

[52] Uğurlu Ö, Nişancı R, Köse E, Yıldırım U, Yüksekyıldız E. Investigation of oil tanker accidents by using GIS. Int J Maritime Eng, 2015, 157(A2): 113-124

[53] Ugurlu Ö, Yildirim U, Basar E. Analysis of grounding accidents caused by human error. J Mar Sci Technol, 2015, 23(5): 748-760

[54] Uğurlu Ö, Kaptan M, Kum S, Yildiz S. Pilotage services in Turkey: key issues and ideal pilotage. Mar Eng Technol, 2016, 16(2): 51-60

[55] Wang H, Jiang H, Yin L. Cause mechanism study to human factors in maritime accidents: towards a complex system brittleness analysis approach. Procedia Soc Behav Sci, 2013, 96: 723-727

[56] Xi YT, Yang ZL, Fong QG, Chen WJ, Wang J. A new hybrid approach to human error probability quantification–applications in maritime operations. Ocean Eng, 2017, 138: 45-54

[57] Yang Z, Bonsall SA, Wall A, Wang J, Usman M. A modified CREAM to human reliability quantification in marine engineering. Ocean Eng, 2013, 58: 293-303

[58] Yang Z, Abujaafar KM, Qu Z, Wang J, Nazir S. Use of evidential reasoning for eliciting Bayesian subjective probabilities in human reliability analysis: a maritime case. Ocean Eng, 2019, 186: 106095

[59] Zhang D, Yan X, Yang Z, Wang J. An accident data-based approach for congestion risk assessment of inland waterways: A Yangtze River case. J Risk Reliab, 2013, 228(2): 176-188