Poverty reduction is a world-wide concern. At the end of 2017, according to the rural poverty standard in China, there were 30.46 million poor in China. However, complete poverty alleviation by the end of 2020 had been achieved. This is significant and complicated, especially as poverty-stricken areas and ecologically fragile areas overlap. During the process of poverty alleviation, the development of forestry projects was not only conducive to improving the environment but also an important way to reduce poverty. Therefore, based on an analysis of the causes of poverty-stricken areas, this study examined successful cases in different regions and proposed ways to promote economic growth: providing state subsidies for tree planting and forest maintenance; developing undergrowth economy; and/or initiating an industrial chain. It also introduces principles to promote forestry progress, according to local conditions, keeping a balance between economic development and the environment. This study provides effective ways to promote forestry development and rural poverty alleviation.

Predicting upper stem diameters and individual tree volumes is important for product quantification and can provide important information for the sustainable management of forests of important commercial tree species (Shorea robusta) in Nepal. The aim of this study was to develop a taper equation for S. robusta. Fifty-four trees were selected and felled in the southern low land of Nepal. A mixed effect modelling approach was used to evaluate 17 different taper functions. ‘Leave-one-out cross-validation’ was used to validate the fitted taper functions. The variable exponent taper function best fitted our data and described more than 99% of the variation in upper stem diameters. Results also showed significant effects of stand density on tree taper. Individual tree volume prediction using the local volume model developed in this study was more accurate compared to the volume predicted through the taper function and existing volume model. The taper function developed in this study provides the benefit of predicting upper stem diameter and can be used for predicting volume to any merchantable height of individual trees. It will have implications in estimates of volume, biomass, and carbon and thus may be a potential supporting tool in carbon trade and revenue generation.

Knowledge on the potential suitability of tree species to the site is very important for forest management planning. Natural forest distribution provides a good reference for afforestation and forest restoration. In this study, we developed species distribution model (SDM) for 16 major tree species with 2,825 permanent sample plots with natural origin from Chinese National Forest Inventory data collected in Jilin Province using the Maxent model. Three types of environmental factors including bioclimate, soil and topography with a total of 33 variables were tested as the input. The values of area under the curve (AUC, one of the receiver operating characteristics of the Maxent model) in the training and test datasets were between 0.784 and 0.968, indicating that the prediction results were quite reliable. The environmental factors affecting the distribution of species were ranked in terms of their importance to the species distribution. Generally, the climatic factors had the greatest contribution, which included mean diurnal range, annual mean temperature, temperature annual range, and iosthermality. But the main environmental factors varied with tree species. Distribution suitability maps under current (1950 − 2000) and future climate scenarios (CCSM4-RCP 2.6 and RCP 6.0 during 2050) were produced for 16 major tree species in Jilin Province using the model developed. The predicted current and future ranges of habitat suitability of the 16 tree species are likely to be positively and negatively affected by future climate. Seven tree species were found to benefit from future climate including Betula costata, Fraxinus mandshurica, Juglans mandshurica, Phellodendron amurense, Populus ussuriensis, Quercus mongolica and Ulmus pumila; five tree species will experience decline in their suitable habitat including B. platyphylla, Tilia mongolica, Picea asperata, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus koraiensis; and four (Salix koreensis, Abies fabri, Pinus densiflora and Larix olgensis) showed the inconsistency under RCP 2.6 and RCP 6.0 scenarios. The maps of the habitat suitability can be used as a basis for afforestation and forest restoration in northeastern China. The SDMs could be a potential tool for forest management planning.

To compare the application of traditional morphometric methods (TMMs) and geometric morphometric methods (GMMs) in the study of intraspecific leaf morphological characters of Quercus dentata, fifteen linear measurement indices and thirteen landmarks of leaves were used to study leaf morphology of three provenances (H1, H2, and H3). In TMMs, principal component analysis (PCA) showed that leaf size–related indices played an important role in population classification. Partial least square (PLS) analysis showed that the main morphological characters affecting leaf size were the average depth of the lobes and the length–width ratios. However, the important indices to distinguish the provenances were circularity, leaf width, and length–width ratio. The results of discriminant analysis (DA) showed that 74.0% of H1, 68.0% of H2, and 74.0% of H3 were correctly classified. Cluster analysis showed that the Mahalanobis distances between H1 and H2, H1 and H3, and H2 and H3 were 4.3761, 11.4629, and 10.2067, respectively. In GMMs, PCA based on symmetrical components showed that the difference in leaf morphology was mainly due to the changing trend of the leaf apex and base, petiole length, and degree of leaf cracking. PLS analysis showed that there was a significant covariation between the leaf symmetrical components and size: as the leaf enlarged, the widest part gradually moved up, and the shape changed from nearly oval to lanceolate. DA results showed that 86.0% and 78.0% of H1 and H2, 70.0% and 80.0% of H1 and H3, and 82.0% and 76.0% of H2 and H3 were correctly classified. Canonical variate analysis results showed that the Mahalanobis distances between H1 and H2, H1 and H3, and H2 and H3 were 1.7238, 1.5380, and 1.6329, respectively. Both GMMs and TMMs showed significant differences in morphology among the three Q. dentata provenances, but GMMs had higher classification accuracy and could provide more information about leaf shape, whereas TMMs could provide more information about leaf size. Based on our results, GMMs are promising in the study of leaf morphological variation within Q. dentata provenances.

Chinese fir [Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.] has a large native distribution range in southern China. Here, we tested differences in productivity of Chinese fir plantations in different climatic regions and screened the main environmental factors affecting site productivity in each region. Relationships of a Chinese fir site index with climatic factors and the soil physiochemical properties of five soil layers were examined in a long-term positioning observation trial comprising a total of 45 permanent plots in Fujian (eastern region in the middle subtropics), Guangxi (south subtropics) and Sichuan (central region in the middle subtropics) in southern China. Linear mixed effects models were developed to predict the site index for Chinese fir, which was found to vary significantly among different climatic regions. Available P, total N, bulk density and total K were dominant predictors of site index in three climatic regions. The regional linear mixed models built using these predictors in the three climatic regions fit well (R ² = 0.86–0.97). For the whole study area, the available P in the 0–20-cm soil layer and total N in the 80–100-cm soil layer were the most indicative soil factors. MAP was the most important climatic variable influencing the site index. The model evaluation results showed that the fitting performance and prediction accuracy of the global site index model using the climatic region as the dummy variable and random parameters and the most important soil factors of the three climatic regions as predictors was higher than that of global site index model using the climatic variable and the most indicative soil variables of the whole study area. Our results will help with further evaluation of site quality of Chinese fir plantations and the selection of its appropriate sites in southern China as the climatic changes.

The physiological characteristics of trees change with age, suggesting that growth-related climate signals vary over time. This study aimed to clarify the impacts of different diameter classes on the chronological characteristics of Pinus massoniana Lamb. and its response to climatic factors. Chronologies of Pinus massoniana were established in small diameter (14.1 cm), middle diameter (27.3 cm), and large diameter (34.6 cm) trees according to dendrochronology. The results show that: (1) radial growth of different diameter classes had varied characteristics and climate sensitivities; (2) radial growth of small diameter trees was affected by climatic factors of the previous and the current year, while large diameter trees were mainly affected by climatic factors of the current year; and (3) precipitation and temperature were key factors that restricted the radial growth of small and large diameter trees, respectively.

Functional traits of trees are significantly associated with their adaptation strategies and productivity. However, the effects of species composition and mixing proportion on the functional traits of trees grown in mixed plantations have not been studied extensively. In this study, planting experiments (duration about seven months) were used to study variations in functional traits and biomass allocation of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook and Phoebe bournei (Hemsley) Yang seedlings in five different mixes (0C:4P, 1C:3P, 1C:1P, 3C:1P, and 4C:0P). Total leaf area per seedling increased in each species as its respective proportion in the mixture decreased. However, the specific leaf area decreased for P. bournei under low percent composition, and the specific leaf area for C. lanceolata differed only marginally among the plantings. The net photosynthetic rates of the two species were higher in the mixed plantings than in their corresponding monocultures, whereas the transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and instantaneous water use efficiency were not different among the plantings. The average root length and root surface area of C. lanceolata and P. bournei were higher in the mixed plantings than in their monocultures. Specifically, root surface area of C. lanceolate and both root length and surface area of P. bournei increased significantly in the 1C:3P and 2C:2P mixed plantings. Leaf, stem, root, and total dry mass per seedling for C. lanceolata decreased with its increasing percent composition in the mixed plantings, while these variables varied less for P. bournei. The plasticity of biomass allocation was relatively low for both species. Total biomass per planting was higher in the mixed plantings than in the monocultures. Our study indicates that species composition and mixing proportion can considerably affect the functional traits of C. lanceolata and P. bournei. The increase in productivity in the mixed plantings may be partially attributed to low rates of competition between the two species, and future studies should examine the different interspecies relationships. The results of this study can be used to improve plantation productivity and ultimately increase the sustainability of tree products and help to better understand the adaptation strategies of plant coexistence.

Bark biomass as an energy source has a high economic value. Bark content variations and production helps recognize the potential of this bioenergy source spatially before harvesting. The percentage of fresh and dry bark in Populus deltoides grown under a monoculture system was examined in the temperate region of northern Iran. Diameter at breast height (DBH) and total height data were analyzed based on an initial inventory. Ten sample trees were felled, separated into 2 m-segments, and weighted in the field. A 5-cm-thick disc from each segment was extracted for determining fresh and dry bark percentages. These were statistically significantly different in disc diameter classes and decreased with increasing disc diameters. Bark percentage of the disc classes ranged from 21.8 to 24.4% in small-sized diameters to 8.1‒9.3% in large-sized diameters. The differences between fresh and dry bark percentages depended on water content variations. Allometric power equations were fitted to data of fresh and dry bark percentages and disc diameters as well as DBH. The values of R² ranged from 0.89 to 0.90. In addition, allometric power equations provided the best fits for relationships between total stem dry biomass, dry bark biomass, and DBH, R ² = 0.986 and 0.979 for the total stem dry biomass and stem dry bark biomass, respectively. The allometric models can be used to estimate bark percentage and bark production of P. deltoides in segments and for the whole stem for a wide range of segment diameters (8‒44 cm) and DBH (15‒45 cm).

To select drought-resistant and dust-tolerant native species suitable for use in the rehabilitation of major coal bases in northwest China, nine tree species were identified for growth rates, biomass, harm index, and physiological indices under drought and high dust stress conditions. The results showed that, in the dust resistance index system, the order was Caragana korshinskii >  Amorpha fruticosa >  Sabina vulgaris >  Hedysarum scoparium >  Tamarix chinensis >  Ammopiptanthus mongolicus >  Ulmus pumila >  Caryopteris mongholica >  Elaeagnus angustifolia. In a comprehensive drought and dust resistance index system, 14 indices (such as shoot length, stomatal conductance, and peroxidase) had the larger weight indices. The drought and dust resistance order of the tree species was Caragana korshinskii >  Ulmus pumila >  Amorpha fruticosa >  Sabina vulgaris >  Caryopteris mongholica >  Ammopiptanthus mongolicus >  Hedysarum scoparium >  Tamarix chinensis >  Elaeagnus angustifolia. This study provides effective strategies and references for selecting suitable tree species for arid mining sites in China, and also for the revegetation of coal mining sites worldwide.

Underground fires are slow spreading, long-lasting and low temperature smoldering combustion without flames, mainly occurring in peatlands and wetlands with rich organic matter. The spread of the smoldering is maintained by heat released during combustion and monitoring this is an important approach to detect underground fires. The Daxing’an Mountains region is a hotspot for underground fires in northeast China. This study examined a Larix gmelinii plantation in the Tatou wetlands of the Daxing’an Mountains and determined the maximum temperature variation of humus of varying particle sizes, and the temperature rising process based on non-linear mixed effects models by an indoor combustion experiment. Maximum combustion temperatures up to 897.5 °C, increased with humus depth; among the three models tested, Richard’s equations were best for characterizing temperature variations; a non-linear equation with three parameters had the highest accuracy in fitting the combustion temperature variations with varying humus particle sizes. These results are informative for predicting temperature variations and provide technical support for underground fire monitoring.

Smoke detection is the most commonly used method in early warning of fire and is widely used in forest detection. Most existing smoke detection methods contain empty spaces and obstacles which interfere with detection and extract false smoke roots. This study developed a new smoke roots search algorithm based on a multi-feature fusion dynamic extraction strategy. This determines smoke origin candidate points and region based on a multi-frame discrete confidence level. The results show that the new method provides a more complete smoke contour with no background interference, compared to the results using existing methods. Unlike video-based methods that rely on continuous frames, an adaptive threshold method was developed to build the judgment image set composed of non-consecutive frames. The smoke roots origin search algorithm increased the detection rate and significantly reduced false detection rate compared to existing methods.

Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir is an exclusive evergreen mangrove species to the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. It grows well in moderate saline zones with full sunlight. This study presents leaf morphological plasticity in B. sexangula to saline zones. Leaves were sampled from different saline zones and various morphological traits were measured. The results exposed a wide deviations of leaf size parameters: leaf length varied 6.6–17.3 cm; width 2.7–7.8 cm; upper quarter width 2.2–6.5 cm; down quarter width 2.5–7.3 cm; and petiole length 0.17–1.43 cm. Leaf length was significantly larger in fresh water than in other salinity zones, whereas, leaf width, upper and lower leaf quarters were significantly larger in medium saline zone. Leaf shape parameters showed a large variation among saline zones. Leaf base angle was significantly larger in both medium and strong salinity zones. Tip angle was significantly greater in medium salinity zone. Leaf perimeter was significantly larger in fresh water but leaf area was significantly bigger in medium saline zone. Leaf index and specific leaf area were maximum in moderate saline zone. Plasticity index was the highest in moderate saline for almost all the parameters presented. The ordination (PCA) showed clusters of leaf samples although there were some overlap among them which suggested a salt-stress relationship among salinity zones. The results indicate that B. sexangula had a plasticity strategy on leaf morphological parameters to salinity in the Sundarbans. This study will provide basic information of leaf plasticity of this species among saline zones which will help for site selection of coastal planting and will also provide information for policy makers to take necessary steps for its conservation.

Larix olgensis, one of the most important timber species in northeastern China, is used for paper making and construction. In this study, 10 wood properties (wood density, fiber length, fiber width, fiber length- to width ratio, hemicellulose content, cellulose content, holocellulose content, lignin content, ash content, and carbon content) of 10 provenances of L. olgensis planted at sites of CuoHai (CH), JiaGeDaQi (JGDQ), LiangShui (LS), and Mao’erShan (MES) were analyzed. The results of ANOVA showed that almost traits differed significantly among locations and provenances, with a significant interaction effect. Each trait also differed significant among provenances within sites. The phenotypic and genetic coefficient of variation (PCV and GCV) and provenance heritability (H ²) for wood properties ranged from 1.122 to 27.365%, from 0.564% to 21.113% and from 0.332 to 0.996, respectively. A correlation analysis showed that wood density was significantly negatively correlated with cellulose content and holocellulose content at sites CH, JGDQ, and LS, but were significantly positively correlated at site MES. Wood density was significantly negatively correlated with lignin content at CH and JGDQ, but not at LS and MES. Fiber width (FW) was negatively correlated with the ratio of fiber length (FL) to width across sites, and FW and FL/W were all positively correlated with FL. Lignin content was significantly positively correlated with hemicellulose content at site JGDQ and significantly negatively correlated with cellulose content and with holocellulose content at site MES. Interestingly, carbon content was positively correlated with cellulose content and holocellulose content at CH, but negatively correlated with these two traits at site MES. In a correlation analysis of wood properties with geographic, soil and climatic characteristics at the four sites, wood properties were mainly correlated with latitude and altitude of the site and affected by the average annual precipitation and temperature simultaneously. To select superior pulpwood provenances and high carbon storage provenances, we selected the two best provenances with excellent wood properties for each location based on a multi-trait comprehensive evaluation, which can be used as the preferred materials for the establishment of large-scale plantations in specific locations.

Species of the Pinus genus provide a classical model for studying hybrid speciation. Although studies on two narrowly distributed species (Pinus funebris and P. takahasii) concluded that they originated from two widespread species (P. sylvestris and P. densiflora) via hybrid speciation, the conclusion was based on a low number of informative restriction sites. In this study, we analyzed the sequences of four Pinus chloroplast (cp) genomes (P. sylvestris, P. densiflora, P. funebris and P. takahasii) to clarify whether hybrid speciation was involved. The complete cp-genomes of Pinus species ranged in size from 119,865 to 119,890 bp, similar to other Pinus species. Phylogenetic results based on the whole cp-genomes showed P. sylvestris clustered with P. funebris and P. takahasii, which suggested that P. sylvestris was the paternal parent in hybridization events. In an analysis of simple sequence repeats (SSRs), we detected a total of 69 SSRs repeats among the four Pinus cp-genomes; most were A or T bases. In addition, we identified divergent hotspot regions among the four Pinus cp-genomes (trnE-clpP, cemA-ycf4, petD-rpoA, psbD-trnT, and trnN-chlL), in P. sylvestris (psbD-trnT, trnN-chlL, psbB and rps8) and in P. densiflora (trnE-clpP, petD-rpoA, ycf3 intron, psbD-trnT, and trnN-chlL). The genome information found in this study provides new insights into hybrid speciation in Pinus and contributes to a better understanding of the phylogenetic relationships within the Pinus genus.

White birch (Betula platyphylla) is precious material for pulpwood and widely distributed in 14 provinces of China. Previous study indicated that inhibited expression of a gene encoding an auxin amide synthase, BpGH3.5, in transgenic plants reduced the level of IAA–amino acid conjugation, resulting in more free IAA, thereby better growth of birch. Utilizing transgenic-BpGH3.5 lines to increase wood production in a wide range of environments is the goal for breeders. In three field trials here, we measured tree height, diameter at breast height, and volume of 16 BpGH3.5-transgenic 7-year-old white birch lines (including 12 antisense strand lines and 4 overexpression lines) and a wild-type white birch line from three sites that varied greatly in their environmental conditions. To select elite BpGH3.5-transgenic lines for each target environment, we used an additive main effects and multiplicative interaction model to analyze genotype by environment interaction, growth adaptability and stability. The selection criteria for elite transgenic lines were set as the average volume plus 0.75 times the standard deviation for the tested lines at each test site. Results showed that the effect of line and site for height was highly significant (P < 0.01), and the effect of line × site was significant (P < 0.05); selected as the elite lines were FG12, FG13 and FG27 at the Maoershan Experimental Forest Farm, FG13 and FG32 at the Shidaohe Forest Farm, and FG3 and FG31 at the Ecological Experiment Forest Farm. These seven high-yield, stable lines can now be tested in production trials or adjacent trial areas with similar environmental conditions, while the high-yield, unstable lines should be tested in production trials in areas deemed suitable for their growth. These results provide guidance on which released transgenic elite lines will grow best in a wide range of conditions.

Turkish red pine (Pinus brutia Ten.), an important pine species for afforestation studies, grows at a wide range of altitudes in the eastern Mediterranean area. Seeds from low (0–400 m a.s.l.), mid (400–800 m) and high (800–1000 m) altitudinal gradients were collected to assess the effects of these gradients on morphological traits (seed length, seed width, 100-seed weight), germination variables (germination percentage and mean germination time), and 10 biochemical variables related to seed reserves. Relationships among these variables were examined with a correlation analysis. Seeds from low and high altitudes had significantly higher 100-seed weight, higher percentage germination but longer germination times and higher total oil and reducing sugars contents. Seeds from mid altitudes had higher carotenoid and soluble phenolics contents. Among the examined biochemical variables, only flavonoid content did not differ among the altitude gradients. The main fatty acids in seeds samples (linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids) were also influenced by the altitude gradients. Oil and total reducing sugars contents were positively correlated with germination percentage, and carotenoid content was negatively correlated with germination percentage. Our results confirmed that seed and germination variables, including the reserve composition varied significantly among the altitudinal gradients.

In forest ecosystems, landslides are one of the most common natural disturbances, altering the physical, chemical and microbial characteristics of soil and thus further altering ecosystem properties and processes. Although secondary forests comprise more than 50% of global forests, the influence of landslides on the soil properties in these forests is underappreciated. Therefore, this study investigates the influence of landslides on the chemical and microbial nature of the soil. Study of these modifications is critical, as it provides baseline evidence for subsequent forest revegetation. We selected four independent landslides and adjacent secondary forest stands as references in a temperate secondary forest in northeastern China. Soils were obtained from each stand at 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depths to determine chemical and microbial properties. Soil total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate (NO₃ ⁻-N), available phosphorus (P), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) and phenol oxidase, exoglucanase, β-glucosidase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, L-asparaginase and acid phosphatase activities were 29.3–70.1% lower at the 0–10 cm soil depth in the landslide sites than at the secondary forest sites, whereas total phosphorus (TP) and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺-N) were unaffected by the landslides. N-related enzymes, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase and L-asparaginase were reduced by more than 65% in the landslide sites, consistent with the decrease in nitrate concentration at the same 0–10 cm depth. At a depth of 10–20 cm, the variations in the soil properties were consistent with those at the 0–10 cm depth. The results demonstrated that soil chemical and microbial properties were significantly disrupted after the landslides, even though the landslides had occurred 6 years earlier. A long time is thus needed to restore the original C and nutrient levels. In temperate secondary forests, soil TC and TN contents were found to be more suitable for estimating the state of soil restoration than soil TP content.

The key transcription factor gene PdPapERF109 was cloned from Populus davidiana ×  P. alba var. pyramidalis (Pdpap), and after overexpression of PdPapERF109 in transformants, the gene functions in the resistance response to Fusarium oxysporum infection. Compared with the wild Pdpap, after inoculation with F. oxysporum, the physiological and biochemical characteristics, including relative fresh weight, peroxidase activity, and the percentage of electrolyte leakage showed that, after overexpression of the PdPapERF109 gene, the transformants grew well and displayed significant resistance to F. oxysporum infection. By comparing the reactive oxygen species scavenging capacity of Pdpap plants after pathogen infection, the PdPapERF109-overexpressing plants had significantly better reactive oxygen species scavenging ability than the wild plants. Comprehensive analysis of plant morphology and various physiological and biochemical parameters showed that the overexpression of the PdpapERF109 gene significantly improved the resistance of Pdpap plants to F. oxysporum root rot. Therefore, increasing the expression of the homologous ERF109 gene can be an effective strategy to increase disease resistance in hybrid poplars.

Ginseng planting in Northeast China brings economic benefits but affects forest landscape integrity and native ecological processes. In order to quantify the impacts of ginseng planting on the forest landscape, Fusong County in Jilin Province was selected as a study area. The number and distribution of ginseng fields over different time was quantified based on remote sensing and ground surveys. Grid analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to study the impacts of ginseng planting on the landscape. The results showed that altitudes and slopes of ginseng fields increased and became increasingly scattered and smaller closer to the Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve. Ginseng fields and abandoned fields increased total patches and total area of the local forested landscape, and shared edge lengths between ginseng fields and forests, resulting in continuous fragmentation of the landscape. Although the total area of existing and abandoned ginseng fields accounts for a small fraction of the total landscape, their negative impacts on ecosystem conservation is significant. The local government needs to rationally plan ginseng planting, scientifically implement the restoration of abandoned ginseng lands, and enhance awareness of ginseng farmers to environmental stewardship. Our study has important significance for maintaining the healthy and stable development of the local ginseng industry and for improving the quality of regional ecological environment.

In recognition of the rising threats of ground-level ozone (O₃) pollution to forests, agricultural crops, and other types of vegetation, accurate and realistic risk assessment is urgently needed. The accumulated O₃ exposure over a concentration threshold of 40 nmol mol⁻¹ (AOT40) is the most commonly used metric to investigate O₃ exposure and its effects on vegetation and to conduct vegetation risk assessment. It is also used by international regulatory authorities for deriving critical levels and setting standards to protect vegetation against surface O₃. However, fixed periods of the growing season are used universally, yet growing seasons vary with latitudes and elevations, and the periods of plant lifespan also differ among annual species. Here, we propose the concept of the Annual O₃ Spectrum Profile (AO₃SP) and apply it to calculate the profile of AOT40 throughout the year (AAOT40SP, Annual AOT40 Spectrum Profile) using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) weeks as a shorter window ISO-based accumulated exposure. Using moving time periods of three (for crops) or six (for forests) months, the _isoAOT40 behavior throughout the year can be examined as a diagnostic tool for O₃ risks in the short- or long-term during the lifecycle of local vegetation. From this analysis, AOT40 (_isoAOT40) that is most representative for the local conditions and specific situations can be identified, depending on the exact growing season and lifecycle of the target vegetation. We applied this novel approach to data from five background monitoring stations located at different elevations in Cyprus. Our results show that the AAOT40SP approach can be used for improved and more realistic assessment of O₃ risks to vegetation. The AO₃SP approach can also be applied using metrics other than AOT40 (exposure- or flux-based), adding a new dimension to the way O₃ risk to vegetation is assessed.