Review on layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries: Degradation mechanisms, modification strategies, and applications

Abstract

Exploiting high-capacity cathode materials with superior reliability is vital to advancing the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Layered oxides, known for their eco-friendliness, adaptability, commercial viability, and significant recent advancements, are prominent cathode materials. However, electrochemical cycling over an extended period can trigger capacity fade, voltage hysteresis, structural instability, and adverse interface reactions which shorten the battery life and cause safety issues. Thus, it is essential to require an in-depth understanding of degradation mechanisms of layered oxides. In this review, the crystal and electronic structures of layered oxides are revisited first, and a renewed understanding is also presented. Three critical degradation mechanisms are highlighted and deeply discussed for layered oxides, namely Jahn–Teller effect, phase transition, and surface decomposition, which are directly responsible for the inferior electrochemical performances. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of recently reported modification strategies related to degradation mechanisms are proposed. Additionally, this review discusses challenges in practical application, primarily from a degradation mechanism standpoint. Finally, it outlines future research directions, offering perspectives to further develop superior layered cathode materials for SIBs, driving the industrialization of SIBs.

Keywords

application / degradation mechanisms / layered oxides cathodes / modification strategies / sodium-ion batteries

References

[1] Chu S, Cui Y, Liu N. The path towards sustainable energy. Nat Mater. 2016;16:16-22.

[2] Huang Y, Li J. Key challenges for grid-scale lithium-ion battery energy storage. Adv Energy Mater. 2022;12:2202197.

[3] Zhao Y, Kang Y, Wozny J, et al. Recycling of sodium-ion batteries. Nat Rev Mater. 2023;8:623-634.

[4] Zhou Q, Li Y, Tang F, et al. Thermal stability of high power 26650-type cylindrical Na-ion batteries. Chin Phys Lett. 2021;38:076501.

[5] Usiskin R, Lu Y, Popovic J, et al. Fundamentals, status and promise of sodium-based batteries. Nat Rev Mater. 2021;6:1020-1035.

[6] Hwang JY, Myung ST, Sun YK. Sodium-ion batteries: present and future. Chem Soc Rev. 2017;46:3529-3614.

[7] Rudola A, Wright CJ, Barker J. Reviewing the safe shipping of lithium-ion and sodium-ion cells: a materials chemistry perspective. Energy Mater Adv. 2021;2021:9798460.

[8] Gu ZY, Wang XT, Heng YL, et al. Prospects and perspectives on advanced materials for sodium-ion batteries. Sci Bull. 2023;68:2302-2306.

[9] Zhu Y-F, Xiao Y, Dou S-X, Kang Y-M, Chou S-L. Spinel/Post-spinel engineering on layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. eScience. 2021;1:13-27.

[10] Li C, Xu H, Ni L, et al. Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries: fundamentals, progress and perspectives. Adv Energy Mater. 2023;13:2301758.

[11] Sada K, Darga J, Manthiram A. Challenges and prospects of sodium-ion and potassium-ion batteries for mass production. Adv Energy Mater. 2023;13:2302321.

[12] Huang ZX, Zhang XL, Zhao XX, et al. Hollow Na_0.62K_0.05Mn_0.7Ni_0.2Co_0.1O₂ polyhedra with exposed stable {001} facets and K riveting for sodium-ion batteries. Sci China Mater. 2023;66:79-87.

[13] Hirsh HS, Li Y, Tan DHS, Zhang M, Zhao E, Meng YS. Sodium-ion batteries paving the way for grid energy storage. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;10:2001274.

[14] Yang C, Xin S, Mai L, You Y. Materials design for high-safety sodium-ion battery. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;11:2000974.

[15] Xu S-Y, Wu X-Y, Li Y-M, Hu Y-S, Chen L-Q. Novel copper redox-based cathode materials for room-temperature sodium-ion batteries. Chin Phys B. 2014;23:118202.

[16] Mu L, Xu S, Li Y, et al. Prototype sodium-ion batteries using an air-stable and Co/Ni-free O3-layered metal oxide cathode. Adv Mater. 2015;27:6928-6933.

[17] Qiao S, Zhou Q, Ma M, Liu HK, Dou SX, Chong S. Advanced anode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries. ACS Nano. 2023;17:11220-11252.

[18] Chu Y, Zhang J, Zhang Y, et al. Reconfiguring hard carbons with emerging sodium-ion batteries: a perspective. Adv Mater. 2023;35:2212186.

[19] Peng B, Wan G, Ahmad N, Yu L, Ma X, Zhang G. Recent progress in the emerging modification strategies for layered oxide cathodes toward practicable sodium ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2023;13:2300334.

[20] Li F, Liu R, Liu J, Li H. Voltage hysteresis in transition metal oxide cathodes for Li/Na-ion batteries. Adv Funct Mater. 2023;33:2300602.

[21] Wang Y, Ding Y, Ni J. Ground-state phase diagram of Na_xCoO₂: correlation of Na ordering with CoO₂ stacking sequences. J Phys Condens Matter. 2009;21:035401.

[22] Lei Y, Li X, Liu L, Ceder G. Synthesis and stoichiometry of different layered sodium cobalt oxides. Chem Mater. 2014;26:5288-5296.

[23] Asl HY, Manthiram A. Reining in dissolved transition-metal ions. Science. 2020;369:140-141.

[24] Katcho NA, Carrasco J, Saurel D, et al. Origins of bistability and na ion mobility difference in P2-and O3-Na_2/3Fe_2/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode polymorphs. Adv Energy Mater. 2016;7:1601477.

[25] Wang D, Shi C, Deng Y-P, et al. A fundamental understanding of the Fe/Ti doping induced structure formation process to realize controlled synthesis of layer-tunnel Na_0.6MnO₂ cathode. Nano Energy. 2020;70:104539.

[26] Kong L-Y, Liu H-X, Zhu Y-F, et al. Layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries: microstructure design, local chemistry and structural unit. Sci China: Chem. 2024;67:191-213.

[27] Delmas C, Fouassier C, Hagenmuller P. Structural classification and properties of the layered oxides. Physica B+C. 1980;99:81-85.

[28] Sun Y, Guo S, Zhou H. Adverse effects of interlayer-gliding in layered transition-metal oxides on electrochemical sodium-ion storage. Energy Environ Sci. 2019;12:825-840.

[29] Wang Y, Wang L, Zhu H, et al. Ultralow-strain Zn-substituted layered oxide cathode with suppressed P2–O2 transition for stable sodium ion storage. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;30:1910327.

[30] Yabuuchi N, Kubota K, Dahbi M, Komaba S. Research development on sodium-ion batteries. Chem Rev. 2014;114:11636-11682.

[31] Radin MD, Hy S, Sina M, et al. Narrowing the gap between theoretical and practical capacities in Li-ion layered oxide cathode materials. Adv Energy Mater. 2017;7:1602888.

[32] Sun G, Yu F-D, Que L-F, et al. Local electronic structure modulation enhances operating voltage in Li-rich cathodes. Nano Energy. 2019;66:104102.

[33] Assat G, Tarascon J-M. Fundamental understanding and practical challenges of anionic redox activity in Li-ion batteries. Nat Energy. 2018;3:373-386.

[34] House RA, Maitra U, Pérez-Osorio MA, et al. Superstructure control of first-cycle voltage hysteresis in oxygen-redox cathodes. Nature. 2020;577:502-508.

[35] Zuo W, Ren F, Li Q, et al. Insights of the anionic redox in P2–Na_0.67Ni_0.33Mn_0.67O₂. Nano Energy. 2020;78:105285.

[36] Pan H, Hu Y-S, Chen L. Room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries for large-scale electric energy storage. Energy Environ Sci. 2013;6:2338.

[37] Eum D, Kim B, Song J-H, et al. Coupling structural evolution and oxygen-redox electrochemistry in layered transition metal oxides. Nat Mater. 2022;21:664-672.

[38] Dai K, Mao J, Zhuo Z, et al. Negligible voltage hysteresis with strong anionic redox in conventional battery electrode. Nano Energy. 2020;74:104831.

[39] Rong X, Hu E, Lu Y, et al. Anionic redox reaction-induced high-capacity and low-strain cathode with suppressed phase transition. Joule. 2019;3:503-517.

[40] Zhu H, Yao Z, Zhu H, et al. Unblocking oxygen charge compensation for stabilized high-voltage structure in P2-type sodium-ion cathode. Adv Sci. 2022;e202200498.

[41] Liu Z, Wu J, Zeng J, et al. Co-free layered oxide cathode material with stable anionic redox reaction for sodium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2023;13:2301471.

[42] Zhang L, Wang C, Liu Y, et al. Suppressing interlayer-gliding and Jahn-Teller effect in P2-type layered manganese oxide cathode via Mo doping for sodium-ion batteries. Chem Eng J. 2021;426:130813.

[43] Radin MD, Van der Ven A. Simulating charge, spin, and orbital ordering: application to Jahn–Teller distortions in layered transition-metal oxides. Chem Mater. 2018;30:607-618.

[44] Xu J, Chen J, Zhang K, Li N, Tao L, Wong C-P. Na_x(Cu–Fe–Mn)O₂ system as cathode materials for Na-ion batteries. Nano Energy. 2020;78:105142.

[45] Liu X, Zuo W, Zheng B, et al. P2-Na_0.67Al_xMn_1-xO₂: cost-effective, stable and high-rate sodium electrodes by suppressing phase transitions and enhancing sodium cation mobility. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2019;58:18086-18095.

[46] Li X, Ma X, Su D, et al. Direct visualization of the Jahn-Teller effect coupled to Na ordering in Na_5/8MnO₂. Nat Mater. 2014;13:586-592.

[47] Goodenough JB. Jahn-Teller phenomena in solids. Annu Rev Mater Sci. 1998;28:1-27.

[48] Li X, Wang Y, Wu D, Liu L, Bo S-H, Ceder G. Jahn–Teller assisted Na diffusion for high performance na ion batteries. Chem Mater. 2016;28:6575-6583.

[49] Yaghoobnejad Asl H, Manthiram A. Proton-induced disproportionation of Jahn-Teller-active transition-metal ions in oxides due to electronically driven lattice instability. J Am Chem Soc. 2020;142:21122-21130.

[50] Zhang Y, Hu A, Xia D, et al. Operando characterization and regulation of metal dissolution and redeposition dynamics near battery electrode surface. Nat Nanotechnol. 2023;18:790-797.

[51] Choi JU, Jo JH, Park YJ, Lee KS, Myung ST. Mn-Rich P’2-Na_0.67[Ni_0.1Fe_0.1Mn_0.8]O₂ as high-energy-density and long-life cathode material for sodium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;10:2001346.

[52] Liu T, Dai A, Lu J, et al. Correlation between manganese dissolution and dynamic phase stability in spinel-based lithium-ion battery. Nat Commun. 2019;10:4721.

[53] Choi JU, Yoon CS, Zhang Q, et al. Understanding on the structural and electrochemical performance of orthorhombic sodium manganese oxides. J Mater Chem A. 2019;7:202-211.

[54] Zhang K, Kim D, Hu Z, et al. Manganese based layered oxides with modulated electronic and thermodynamic properties for sodium ion batteries. Nat Commun. 2019;10:5203.

[55] Wang F, Peng B, Zeng S, et al. Activating oxygen redox in layered Na_xMnO₂ to suppress intrinsic deficient behavior and enable phase-transition-free sodium ion cathode. Adv Funct Mater. 2022;32:2202665.

[56] Liu Y, Wang C, Zhao S, et al. Mitigation of Jahn–Teller distortion and Na⁺/vacancy ordering in a distorted manganese oxide cathode material by Li substitution. Chem Sci. 2021;12:1062-1067.

[57] Niu Y, Hu Z, Zhang B, et al. Earth-abundant Na-Mg-Fe-Mn-O cathode with reversible hybrid anionic and cationic redox. Adv Energy Mater. 2023;13:2300746.

[58] Gao X, Chen J, Liu H, et al. Copper-substituted Na_xMO₂ (M = Fe, Mn) cathodes for sodium ion batteries: enhanced cycling stability through suppression of Mn(III) formation. Chem Eng J. 2021;406:126830.

[59] Yang T, Huang Y, Zhang J, et al. Insights into Ti doping for stabilizing the Na_2/3Fe_1/3Mn_2/3O₂ cathode in sodium ion battery. J Energy Chem. 2022;73:542-548.

[60] Zhao C, Yao Z, Wang Q, et al. Revealing high Na-content P2-type layered oxides as advanced sodium-ion. J Am Chem Soc. 2020;142:5742-5750.

[61] Wang PF, Yao HR, Liu XY, et al. Na⁺/vacancy disordering promises high-rate Na-ion batteries. Sci Adv. 2017;4:eaar6018.

[62] Wang K, Yan P, Sui M. Phase transition induced cracking plaguing layered cathode for sodium-ion battery. Nano Energy. 2018;54:148-155.

[63] Feng J, Luo S, Qian L, et al. Properties of the Z-Phase in Mn-Rich P2-Na_0.67Ni_0.1Mn_0.8Fe_0.1O₂ as sodium-ion-battery cathodes. Small. 2023;19:2208005.

[64] Li Y, Zhao Y, Feng X, et al. A durable P2-type layered oxide cathode with superior low-temperature performance for sodium-ion batteries. Sci China Mater. 2021;65:328-336.

[65] Wang Y, Xiao R, Hu YS, Avdeev M, Chen L. P2-Na_0.6[Cr_0.6Ti_0.4]O₂ cation-disordered electrode for high-rate symmetric rechargeable sodium-ion batteries. Nat Commun. 2015;6:6954.

[66] Yang Y, Feng Y, Chen Z, et al. Strain engineering by atomic lattice locking in P2-type layered oxide cathode for high-voltage sodium-ion batteries. Nano Energy. 2020;76:105061.

[67] Yu TY, Ryu HH, Han G, Sun YK. Understanding the capacity fading mechanisms of O3-type Na[Ni_0.5Mn_0.5]O₂ cathode for sodium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;10:2001609.

[68] Berthelot R, Carlier D, Delmas C. Electrochemical investigation of the P2–Na_xCoO₂ phase diagram. Nat Mater. 2011;10:74-80.

[69] Xu C, Reeves PJ, Jacquet Q, Grey CP. Phase behavior during electrochemical cycling of Ni-rich cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;11:2003404.

[70] Zhang T, Ren M, Huang Y, et al. Negative lattice expansion in an O3-type transition-metal oxide cathode for highly stable sodium-ion batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2024;136:e202316949.

[71] Gao S, Zhu Z, Fang H, et al. Regulation of coordination chemistry for ultrastable layered oxide cathode materials of sodium-ion batteries. Adv Mater. 2024;36(6):e2311523.

[72] Yuan T, Li S, Sun Y, et al. A high-rate, durable cathode for sodium-ion batteries: Sb-doped O3-type Ni/Mn-based layered oxides. ACS Nano. 2022;16:18058-18070.

[73] Kubota K, Asari T, Komaba S. Impact of Ti and Zn dual-substitution in P2 type Na_2/3Ni_1/3Mn_2/3O₂ on Ni–Mn and Na-vacancy ordering and electrochemical properties. Adv Mater. 2023;35:2300714.

[74] Shi Q, Qi R, Feng X, et al. Niobium-doped layered cathode material for high-power and low-temperature sodium-ion batteries. Nat Commun. 2022;13:3205.

[75] Wang X, Dong X, Feng X, et al. In-plane BO₃ configuration in P2 layered oxide enables outstanding long cycle performance for sodium ion batteries. Small Methods. 2023;7:220120.

[76] Liu G, Xu W, Wu J, et al. Unlocking high-rate O3 layered oxide cathode for Na-ion batteries via ion migration path modulation. J Energy Chem. 2023;83:53-61.

[77] Hu HY, Zhu YF, Xiao Y, et al. Strain engineering by local chemistry manipulation of triphase heterostructured oxide cathodes to facilitate phase transitions for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2022;12:2201511.

[78] Fu F, Liu X, Fu X, et al. Entropy and crystal-facet modulation of P2-type layered cathodes for long-lasting sodium-based batteries. Nat Commun. 2022;13:2826.

[79] Zhou D, Wang J, Liu X, et al. Operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy investigations on Na_xNi_1/3Fe_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ positive electrode materials for sodium and sodium ion batteries. J Power Sources. 2020;473:228557.

[80] Huang Y, Yan Z, Luo W, et al. Vitalization of P2–Na_2/3Ni_1/3Mn_2/3O₂ at high-voltage cyclability via combined structural modulation for sodium-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 2020;29:182-189.

[81] Wang Q-C, Meng J-K, Yue X-Y, et al. Tuning P2-structured cathode material by Na-site Mg substitution for Na-ion batteries. J Am Chem Soc. 2018;141:840-848.

[82] Wang PF, Yao HR, Liu XY, et al. Ti-substituted NaNi_0.5Mn_0.5-xTi_xO₂ cathodes with reversible O3-P3 phase transition for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. Adv Mater. 2017;29:1700210.

[83] Wang Q, Mariyappan S, Vergnet J, et al. Reaching the energy density limit of layered O3-NaNi_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ electrodes via dual Cu and Ti substitution. Adv Energy Mater. 2019;9:1901785.

[84] Sathiya M, Jacquet Q, Doublet M-L, Karakulina OM, Hadermann J, Tarascon J-M. A chemical approach to raise cell voltage and suppress phase transition in O3 sodium layered oxide electrodes. Adv Energy Mater. 2018;8:1702599.

[85] Fang H, Ji H, Zhai J, et al. Mitigating Jahn–Teller effect in layered cathode material via interstitial doping for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. Small. 2023;19:2301360.

[86] Guo YJ, Wang PF, Niu YB, et al. Boron-doped sodium layered oxide for reversible oxygen redox reaction in Na-ion battery cathodes. Nat Commun. 2021;12:5267.

[87] Mao Q, Yu Y, Wang J, et al. Mitigating the P2–O2 transition and Na⁺/vacancy ordering in Na_2/3Ni_1/3Mn_2/3O₂ by anion/cation dual-doping for fast and stable Na⁺ insertion/extraction. J Mater Chem A. 2021;A 9:10803-10811.

[88] Hu H, He H-C, Xie R-K, et al. Achieving reversible Mn²⁺/Mn⁴⁺ double redox couple through anionic substitution in a P2-type layered oxide cathode. Nano Energy. 2022;99:107390.

[89] Liu K, Tan S, Moon J, et al. Insights into the enhanced cycle and rate performances of the F-substituted P2-type oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;10:2000135.

[90] Paidi AK, Park WB, Ramakrishnan P, et al. Unravelling the nature of the intrinsic complex structure of binary-phase Na-layered oxides. Adv Mater. 2022;34:2202137.

[91] Cheng Z, Fan XY, Yu L, et al. A rational biphasic tailoring strategy enabling high-performance layered cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2022;61:e202117728.

[92] Chen TR, Sheng T, Wu ZG, et al. Cu²⁺ dual-doped layer-tunnel hybrid Na_0.6Mn_1-xCu_xO₂ as a cathode of sodium-ion battery with enhanced structure stability, electrochemical property, and air stability. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018;10:10147-10156.

[93] Xiao Y, Wang Y, Bo S-H, Kim JC, Miara LJ, Ceder G. Understanding interface stability in solid-state batteries. Nat Rev Mater. 2019;5:105-126.

[94] Yang L, Yang K, Zheng J, Xu K, Amine K, Pan F. Harnessing the surface structure to enable high-performance cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Chem Soc Rev. 2020;49:4667-4680.

[95] Song J, Wang K, Zheng J, et al. Controlling surface phase transition and chemical reactivity of O3-layered metal oxide cathodes for high-performance Na-ion batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2020;5:1718-1725.

[96] Guo S, Li Q, Liu P, Chen M, Zhou H. Environmentally stable interface of layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Nat Commun. 2017;8:135.

[97] Mu L, Feng X, Kou R, et al. Deciphering the cathode–electrolyte interfacial chemistry in sodium layered cathode materials. Adv Energy Mater. 2018;8:1801975.

[98] Zuo W, Qiu J, Liu X, et al. The stability of P2-layered sodium transition metal oxides in ambient atmospheres. Nat Commun. 2020;11:3544.

[99] You Y, Dolocan A, Li W, Manthiram A. Understanding the air-exposure degradation chemistry at a nanoscale of layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Nano Lett. 2019;19:182-188.

[100] Xu W, Dang R, Zhou L, et al. Conversion of surface residual alkali to solid electrolyte to enable Na-ion full cells with robust interface. Adv Mater. 2023;35:2301314.

[101] Zhang J, Gai J, Song K, Chen W. Advances in electrode/electrolyte interphase for sodium-ion batteries from half cells to full cells. Cell Rep Phys Sci. 2022;3:100868.

[102] Jin Y, Xu Y, Le PML, et al. Highly reversible sodium ion batteries enabled by stable electrolyte-electrode interphases. ACS Energy Lett. 2020;5:3212-3220.

[103] Liu YF, Han K, Peng DN, et al. Layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries: from air stability, interface chemistry to phase transition. InfoMat. 2023;5:e12422.

[104] Wu S, Su B, Ni K, et al. Fluorinated carbonate electrolyte with superior oxidative stability enables long-term cycle stability of Na_2/3Ni_1/3Mn_2/3O₂ cathodes in sodium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2020;11:2002737.

[105] Jo JH, Choi JU, Konarov A, et al. Sodium-ion batteries: building effective layered cathode materials with long-term cycling by modifying the surface via sodium phosphate. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28:1705968.

[106] Kim H, Park J-H, Kim S-C, et al. Multiple effects of Mg_1–xNi_xO coating on P2-type Na_0.67Ni_0.33Mn_0.67O₂ to generate highly stable cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. J Alloys Compd. 2021;856:157294.

[107] Li X, Shen X, Zhao J, et al. O3-NaFe_1/3–xNi_1/3Mn_1/3Al_xO₂ cathodes with improved air stability for Na-ion batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13:33015-33023.

[108] Joshi A, Chakrabarty S, Akella SH, et al. High-entropy Co-free O3-type layered oxyfluoride: a promising air-stable cathode for sodium-ion batteries. Adv Mater. 2023;35:2304440.

[109] Risthaus T, Zhou D, Cao X, et al. A high-capacity P2 Na_2/3Ni_1/3Mn_2/3O₂ cathode material for sodium ion batteries with oxygen activity. J Power Sources. 2018;395:16-24.

[110] Chu S, Jia X, Wang J, et al. Reduced air sensitivity and improved electrochemical stability of P2–Na_2/3Mn_1/2Fe_1/4Co_1/4O₂ through atomic layer deposition-assisted Al₂O₃ coating. Composites Part B. 2019;173:106913.

[111] Zhang Q, Wang Z, Li X, et al. Mitigating the voltage fading and air sensitivity of O3-type NaNi_0.4Mn_0.4Cu_0.1Ti_0.1O₂ cathode material via La doping. Chem Eng J. 2022;431:133456.

[112] Deng J, Luo W-B, Lu X, et al. High energy density sodium-ion battery with industrially feasible and air-stable O3-Type layered oxide cathode. Adv Energy Mater. 2018;8:1701610.

[113] Yan Z, Tang L, Huang Y, et al. A hydrostable cathode material based on the layered P2@P3 composite that shows redox behavior for copper in high-rate and long-cycling sodium-ion batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2019;58:1412-1416.

[114] Wang Q, Zhou D, Zhao C, et al. Fast-charge high-voltage layered cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Nat Sustain. 2024;7:338-347.

[115] Zou P, Yao L, Wang C, Lee SJ, Li T, Xin HL. Regulating cation interactions for zero-strain and high-voltage P2-type Na_2/3Li_1/6Co_1/6Mn_2/3O₂ layered oxide cathodes of sodium-ion batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2023;62:e202304628.

[116] Wang Q, Li J, Jin H, Xin S, Gao H. Prussian-blue materials: revealing new opportunities for rechargeable batteries. InfoMat. 2022;4:e12311.

[117] Wang M, Wang Q, Ding X, et al. The prospect and challenges of sodium-ion batteries for low-temperature conditions. Interdiscip Mater. 2022;1:373-395.

[118] Sun M-Y, Liu B, Xia Y, et al. Reorganizing helmholtz adsorption plane enables sodium layered-oxide cathode beyond high oxidation limits. Adv Mater. 2024:2311432.

[119] Fang K, Tang Y, Liu J, et al. Injecting excess Na into a P2-type layered oxide cathode to achieve presodiation in a Na-ion full cell. Nano Lett. 2023;23:6681-6688.

[120] Zou K, Deng W, Cai P, et al. Prelithiation/presodiation techniques for advanced electrochemical energy storage systems: concepts, applications, and perspectives. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;31:2005581.

[121] Zhang T, Kong J, Shen C, et al. Converting residual alkali into sodium compensation additive for high-energy Na-ion batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2023;8:4753-4761.

[122] Niu YB, Yin YX, Guo YG. Nonaqueous sodium-ion full cells: status, strategies, and prospects. Small. 2019;15:1900233.

[123] Sathiya M, Thomas J, Batuk D, Pimenta V, Gopalan R, Tarascon JM. Dual stabilization and sacrificial effect of Na₂CO₃ for increasing capacities of Na-ion cells based on P2-Na_xMO₂ electrodes. Chem Mater. 2017;29:5948-5956.

[124] Shen B, Zhan R, Dai C, et al. Manipulating irreversible phase transition of NaCrO₂ towards an effective sodium compensation additive for superior sodium-ion full cells. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2019;553:524-529.

[125] Yu-Bin N, Yu-Jie G, Ya-Xia Y, et al. High efficiency cathode sodium compensation for sodium-ion batteries. Adv Mater. 2020;32:2001419.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 The Author(s). Interdisciplinary Materials published by Wuhan University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.