Examining Individual Earthquake Preparedness Behaviors in Istanbul, Türkiye: A Stage-Based Study Applying the Precaution Adoption Process Model

Abstract

Contemporary disaster risk management emphasizes the importance of mitigation and preparedness. Individual preparedness is essential for mitigating hazard impacts. This study examined earthquake preparedness behaviors through the lens of the precaution adoption process model (PAPM), a health psychology framework. The study aimed to identify differences among individuals at various PAPM stages regarding factors influencing preparedness. The sample consisted of 577 participants, aged 18 to 62, residing in Istanbul. After data collection, group comparison tests were conducted. The findings suggest significant differences between individuals in Stage 3 (undecided about acting) and those in Stage 5 (decided to act) regarding fatalism, perceived barriers, perceived benefits, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Participants who decided to act (Stage 5) reported lower levels of perceived behavioral control than did those who had already acted (Stage 6). Future intervention studies should develop strategies to reduce fatalism and perceived barriers while enhance perceived benefits, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to encourage individuals to decide on performing earthquake preparedness behaviors. Increasing perceived behavioral control is essential in future intervention programs to facilitate the transition to action among individuals who have decided to perform preparedness behaviors. More comprehensive mixed-methods studies are needed to thoroughly identify the barriers to preparedness behaviors among individuals at different stages of the PAPM. In addition, more longitudinal studies are necessary to understand the dynamics between stages better.

Keywords

Disaster risk reduction / Earthquake preparedness behavior / Istanbul / Precaution adoption process model (PAPM)

References

[1] AFAD (Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency). n.d.a. Earthquake. https://www.afad.gov.tr/afadem/deprem. Accessed 2 Nov 2024.

[2] AFAD (Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency). n.d.b. Drop, cover, and hold on drills in 81 provinces during an earthquake. https://www.afad.gov.tr/81-ilde-deprem-ani-cok-kapan-tutun-tatbikatlari#. Accessed 18 Mar 2025.

[3] AjzenI KuhlJ, BeckmannJ. From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. Action control, 1985 Berlin Springer 11-39

[4] AjzenI. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1991, 50(2): 179-211

[5] AkalınS, ŞakiroğluM, TunçB, ErenS. Investigation of some variables predicting the earthquake preparedness behavior: Aydın sample (Depreme önlem alma davranışını yordayan bazı değişkenlerin incelenmesi: aydın ili örneği in Turkish). Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2020, 22(3): 977-993

[6] AminiR, BiglariF, KhodaveisiM, TapakL. Effect of education based on the health belief model on earthquake preparedness in women. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2021, 52(3): 101954

[7] BaşaranZ. The effect of twelve-week recreation activities on the anxiety levels of female prisoners (12 Haftalık Rekreatif Etkinliklerin Kadın Hükümlülerin Sürekli Kaygı Düzeyine Etkisi). International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, 2015, 3(1): 561-574 in Turkish

[8] BaytiyehH, ÖcalA. High school students’ perceptions of earthquake disaster: A comparative study of Lebanon and Turkey. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016, 18: 56-63

[9] BeckerJS, PatonD, JohnstonDM, RonanKR. Salient beliefs about earthquake hazards and household preparedness. Risk Analysis, 2013, 33(9): 1710-1727

[10] BeckerJS, PatonD, JohnstonDM, RonanKR, McClureJ. The role of prior experience in informing and motivating earthquake preparedness. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2017, 22(1): 179-193

[11] BoggT, RobertsBW. Conscientiousness and health-related behaviors: A meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to mortality. Psychological Bulletin, 2004, 130(6): 887-919

[12] ChaiL, HanY, HanZ, WeiJ, ZhaoY. Differences in disaster preparedness between urban and rural communities in China. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2021, 53: 102020

[13] CoppolaDP Introduction to international disaster management, 2015 3 Amsterdam Elsevier

[14] CRED (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters). 2024. EM-DAT: The International Disaster Database. Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. https://www.emdat.be/. Accessed 1 Dec 2024.

[15] DaellenbachK, ParkinsonJ, KrisjanousJ. Just how prepared are you? An application of marketing segmentation and theory of planned behavior for disaster preparation. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 2018, 30(4): 413-443

[16] Demir, Ö. 2023. Investigation of individuals’ attitudes toward and beliefs about earthquake preparedness behaviors in the framework of health psychology theories (Bireylerin depreme hazırlık davranışlarına yönelik tutum ve inançlarının sağlık psikolojisi kuramları çerçevesinde incelenmesi). Master’s thesis. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul (in Turkish).

[17] DemirÖ, AydemirN. The validity and reliability study of the beliefs about earthquake preparedness scale (BAEPS) based on the health belief model (sağlık inanç modeline dayalı depreme hazırlık inançları ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması in Turkish). AYNA Klinik Psikoloji Dergisi, 2024, 11(3): 554-578

[18] EjetaLT, ArdalanA, PatonD, YaseriM. Predictors of community preparedness for flood in Dire-Dawa Town, eastern Ethiopia: Applying adapted version of health belief model. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016, 19: 341-354

[19] Eurostat. 2023. Living conditions in Europe, income distribution and income inequality. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics. Accessed 22 Mar 2025.

[20] GeorgeD, MalleryP IBM SPSS Statistics 25 step by step: A simple guide and reference, 2019 New York Routledge

[21] GlikDC, EisenmanDP, ZhouQ, TsengCH, AschSM. Using the precaution adoption process model to describe a disaster preparedness intervention among low-income Latinos. Health Education Research, 2014, 29(2): 272-283

[22] GoldbergLR. An alternative “description of personality”: The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1990, 59(6): 1216-1229

[23] Hochbaum, G.M. 1958. Public participation in medical screening programs: A socio-psychological study. Public Health Service Publication No. 572. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

[24] JassempourK, ShiraziKK, FararooeiM, ShamsM, ShiraziAR. The impact of educational intervention for providing disaster survival kit: Applying precaution adoption process model. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2014, 10: 374-380

[25] John, O., E.M. Donahue, and R.L. Kentle. 1991. The big-five inventory – Version 4a and 54. Berkeley Institute of Personality and Social Research, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.

[26] Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute Istanbul Province probable earthquake loss estimates update project, 2019 Istanbul Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute

[27] Karanci, A.N. 2008. Psychological variables related to disaster mitigation/preparedness behaviors (afet zararlarını azaltmada psikolojinin önemi). In Disaster mitigation principles (afet zararlarını azaltmanın temel ilkeleri), ed. M. Kadıoğlu, and E. Özdamar, 51–58. Ankara: JICA Türkiye Ofisi (in Turkish).

[28] KaranciAN, AksitB. Building disaster-resistant communities: Lessons learned from past earthquakes in Turkey and suggestions for the future.. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 2000, 18(3): 403-416

[29] KaranciAN, DoğuluC. Social dimension of disaster psychology: Disaster preparedness (Afet psikolojisinin sosyal boyutu: Afetlere hazırlıklı olmak). Türkiye Klinikleri Psikoloji-Özel Konular, 2017, 2(3): 225-232 (in Turkish)

[30] KaranciAN, AksitB, DirikG. Impact of a community disaster awareness training program in Turkey: Does it influence hazard-related cognitions and preparedness behaviors?. Social Behavior and Personality, 2005, 33(3): 243-258

[31] KasapoğluA, EcevitM. Impact of the 1999 East Marmara earthquake in Turkey. Population and Environment, 2003, 24(4): 339-358

[32] KayaA, BozkurB. Development of fatalism tendency scale: Validity and reliability study (Kadercilik Eğilimi Ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması). Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2015, 11(3): 935-946 (in Turkish)

[33] KimHY. Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 2013, 38(1): 52-54

[34] KohnS, Lipkowitz EatonJ, FerozS, BainbridgeAA, HoolachanJ, BarnettDJ. Personal disaster preparedness: An integrative review of the literature. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 2012, 6(3): 217-231

[35] LiuX, SunL. Examining the impact of fatalism belief and optimism orientation on seismic preparedness: Considering their roles in the nexus between risk perception and preparedness. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 2021, 30(4): 412-426

[36] McCarthyS, FriedmanS. Disaster preparedness and housing tenure: How do subsidized renters fare?. Housing Policy Debate, 2023, 33(5): 1100-1123

[37] McClureJ. Fatalism, causal reasoning, and natural hazards. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science, 2017

[38] Najafi, M., A. Ardalan, A. Akbarisari, A.A. Noorbala, and H. Elmi. 2017. The theory of planned behavior and disaster preparedness. Plos Currents Disasters 9. https://doi.org/10.1371/currents.dis.4da18e0f1479bf6c0a94b29e0dbf4a72.

[39] OralM, YenelA, OralE, AydinN, TuncayT. Earthquake experience and preparedness in Turkey. Disaster Prevention and Management, 2015, 24(1): 21-37

[40] ÖcalA. Natural disasters in Turkey: Social and economic perspective. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 2019, 1(1): 51-61

[41] Öner, N., and A. le Compte. 1998. Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (süreksiz durumluk ve sürekli kaygı envanteri el kitabı), 2nd edn. Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınevi, İstanbul

[42] ÖztekinGG, ÖrkiH. Effects of depression, anxiety, and stress on disaster preparedness: Evidence from the February 6 Türkiye earthquakes. Afet ve Risk Dergisi, 2023, 6(4): 1332-1347

[43] PatonD, SmithL, JohnstonD. When good intentions turn bad: Promoting natural hazard preparedness. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 2005, 20(1): 25-30

[44] RosenstockI. What research in motivation suggests for public health. American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, 1960, 50(3): 295-302

[45] Rostami-MoezM, Rabiee-YeganehM, ShokouhiM, Dosti-IraniA, Rezapur-ShahkolaiF. Earthquake preparedness of households and its predictors based on health belief model. BMC Public Health, 2020, 20(1): 646

[46] RotterJB. Some comments on the “cognates of personal control”. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 1992, 1(2): 127-129

[47] RüstemliA, KaranciAN. Correlates of earthquake cognitions and preparedness behavior in a victimized population. Journal of Social Psychology, 1999, 139(1): 91-101

[48] SpielbergerCD, GorsuchR, LusheneRE Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory, 1970 Polo Alto, CA Consulting Psychologists Press

[49] StockA, DavidsonRA, TrainorJE, SlotterR, NozickLK, KruseJB. What makes homeowners consider protective actions to reduce disaster risk? An application of the precaution adoption process model and life course theory. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 2021, 12(3): 312-325

[50] Sümer, N., and H.C. Sümer. 2005. Beş faktör kişilik özellikleri ölçeği. Unpublished study.

[51] SümerN, LajunenT, ÖzkanT UnderwoodG. Big five personality traits as the distal predictors of road accident involvement. Traffic and transport psychology: Theory and application, 2005 Amsterdam Elsevier 215-227

[52] TopalMH, ŞimşekK, BaşpınarA. Individual earthquake preparedness of residents in Istanbul: Social and cognitive determinants. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyoloji Dergisi, 2024, 44(1): 77-130

[53] TÜİK (Turkish Statistical Institute). 2021a. Household information technology usage survey (Hanehalkı bilişim teknolojileri kullanım araştırması). https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Hanehalki-Bilisim-Teknolojileri-(BT)-Kullanim-Arastirmasi-2021-37437. Accessed 9 Feb 2022 (in Turkish).

[54] TÜİK (Turkish Statistical Institute). 2021b. Survey on building and dwelling characteristics, number and proportion of households by provinces and number of floors in the residential building (Bina ve konut nitelikleri araştırması, il ve ikamet edilen binanın kat sayısına göre hanehalkı sayısı ve oranı). https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Survey-on-Building-and-Dwelling-Characteristics-2021-45870. Accessed 18 Mar 2025 (in Turkish).

[55] TÜİK (Turkish Statistical Institute). 2024. Address based population registration system, population of province/district centers and towns/villages by province and sex, population density by province (adrese dayalı nüfus kayıt sistemi sonuçları, il ve cinsiyete göre il/ilçe merkezi, belde/köy nüfusu ve nüfus yoğunluğu). https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Adrese-Dayali-Nufus-Kayit-Sistemi-Sonuclari-2024-53783. Accessed 18 Mar 2025 (in Turkish).

[56] VuralAM, Boztepe TaşkıranH, TürkoğluS, SarıM, YüncüoğluB, KoparanE, KeskinRK. Earthquake preparedness in public institutions: An evaluation in the context of the expected Istanbul earthquake ( Kamu kurumlarında depreme hazırlık: Beklenen İstanbul depremi örneklemi bağlamında bir değerlendirme ). Global Media Journal Turkish Edition, 2024, 15(29): 28-53 (in Turkish)

[57] WachingerG, RennO, BeggC, KuhlickeC. The risk perception paradox implications for governance and communication of natural hazards. Risk Analysis, 2013, 33(6): 1049-1065

[58] WangJ-J, TsaiN-Y. Factors affecting elementary and junior high school teachers’ behavioral intentions to school disaster preparedness based on the theory of planned behavior. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2022, 69: 102757

[59] WangY, LiuY, YuM, WangH, PengC, ZhangP, NianX, JiaQ, LiC. Disaster preparedness among nurses in China: A cross-sectional study. The Journal of Nursing Research, 2023, 31(1): e255

[60] WeinsteinND, SandmanPM. A model of the precaution adoption process: Evidence from home radon testing. Health Psychology, 1992, 11(3): 170-180

[61] WeinsteinND, SandmanPM, BlalockSJ GlanzK, RimerBK, ViswanathK. The precaution adoption process model. Health behavior and health education, theory, research and practice, 2008 San Francisco, CA Jossey-Bass 123-147

[62] WeinsteinND, SandmanPM, BlalockSJ SweenyK, RobbinsML, CohenLM. The precaution adoption process model. The Wiley encyclopedia of health psychology, 2020 Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons 495-506

[63] Welton-MitchellC, JamesLE, KhanalSN, JamesAS. An integrated approach to mental health and disaster preparedness: A cluster comparison with earthquake affected communities in Nepal. BMC Psychiatry, 2018, 18: 296

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)