Place- and Age-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction for Hong Kong: Collaborative Place Audit and Social Vulnerability Index for Elders

Abstract

This study reformulates the concept and contents of disaster risk reduction (DRR) in Hong Kong through an explorative study on collaborative place audit (CPA) and social vulnerability index (SVI) for elders. We believe that DRR should be place- and age-responsive. Accordingly, DRR needs to go beyond technical concerns and address vulnerability and risk encountered in the built environment where an individual is located. A place-centered DRR begins with an assessment of person–environment relations from an interdependent perspective. Community becomes a significant scale at which to address vulnerability and risks across a range of environmental, socioeconomic, and institutional factors. A CPA is a ground-level assessment tool that identifies vulnerability and risk in the built and social environment. The audit encourages collaboration in problem solving that uses social capital to effect decision-making change in hierarchies and policy networks. Age-responsive DRR facilitates distinguishing living-alone elders from the general population. This perspective addresses varying degrees of vulnerability due to social and communicational isolation, poverty, disability, being sent to hospital and/or receiving institutional care, as well as lack of access to primary care. Accordingly, SVI, based on compound indicators, is developed to assess the differentiation of vulnerability across the territory with particular reference to the elders. These two approaches, namely, CPA and SVI, build community capacity to develop a resilient city, as well as to provide evidence-based recommendations that improve government-led disaster preparedness and contingency plans.

Keywords

Disaster risk reduction / Hong Kong / Place audit / Social capital / Social vulnerability

References

[1] Ahmad, O.B., C. Boschi-Pinto, A.D. Lopez, C.J. Murray, R. Lozano, and M. Inoue. 2001. Age standardization of rates: A new WHO standard. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper31.pdf. Accessed 2 Jun 2017.

[2] Baker LR, Cormier LA. Disasters and vulnerable populations: Evidence-based practice for the helping professions, 2014, New York: Springer

[3] Bernard P, Charafeddine R, Frohlich KL, Daniel M, Kestens Y, Potvin L. Health inequalities and place: A theoretical conception of neighbourhood. Social Science & Medicine, 2007, 65(9): 1839-1852

[4] Brown LM, Haun JN, Peterson L. A proposed disaster literacy model. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 2014, 8(3): 267-275

[5] Cadag JRD, Gaillard JC. Integrating knowledge and actions in disaster risk reduction: The contribution of participatory mapping. Area, 2012, 44(1): 100-109

[6] Cannon T. Vulnerability, “innocent” disasters and the imperative of cultural understanding. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 2008, 17(3): 350-357

[7] Chan EYY. Bottom-up disaster resilience. Nature Geoscience, 2013, 6(5): 327-328

[8] Chan, E.Y.Y., M.P.S. Yeung, and S.T.T. Lo. 2015. Hong Kong’s emergency and disaster response system. http://ccouc.org/_asset/file/policy-brief-1.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[9] Chan EYY, Yue J, Lee P, Wang SS. Socio-demographic predictors for urban community disaster health risk perception and household based preparedness in a Chinese urban city. PLOS Current Disasters, 2016

[10] Chatterjee S. Archer D, Colenbrander S, Dodman D. Rights, risks and resilience: The 3Rs approach to child-centred climate change in Asian cities. Responding to Climate Change in Asian Cities: Governance for a More Resilient Urban Future, 2017, New York: Routledge 33-55.

[11] Chau PH, Chan KC, Woo J. Hot weather warning might help to reduce elderly mortality in Hong Kong. International Journal of Biometeorology, 2009, 53(5): 461-468

[12] Chau PH, Wong M, Woo J. Challenge to long term care for the elderly: Cold weather impacts institutional population more than community-dwelling population. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 2012, 13(9): 788-793

[13] Chau PH, Woo J, Gusmano MK, Weisz D, Rodwin VG, Chan KC. Access to primary care in Hong Kong, Greater London and New York City. Health Economics, Policy and Law, 2013, 8(1): 95-109

[14] Chau PH, Yen E, Morley JE, Woo J. The effects of environmental stressors on the mortality of the oldest old male population in Hong Kong, 1977–2006. The Aging Male, 2008, 11(4): 179-188

[15] CUHK (Chinese University of Hong Kong) Jockey Club Institute of Ageing Report on AgeWatch index for Hong Kong 2015, 2017, Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong

[16] Cruz AM. McEntire DA. Engineering’s contribution to the field of emergency management. Disciplines, disasters and emergency management: The convergence and divergence of concepts, issues and trends from the research literature, 2007, Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas 49-60.

[17] Cutter SL, Barnes L, Berry M, Burton C, Evans E, Tate E, Webb J. A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change, 2008, 18(4): 598-606

[18] Cutter SL, Boruff BJ, Shirley WL. Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Social Science Quarterly, 2003, 84(2): 242-261

[19] De Smith MJ, Goodchild MF, Longley PA. Geospatial analysis: A comprehensive guide to principles, techniques and software tools, 2009, Leicester, UK: Matador

[20] den Hartog H. Shanghai new towns: Searching for community and identity in a sprawling metropolis, 2010, Rotterdam: 010 Publishers

[21] Dickson E, Baker JL, Hoornweg D, Tiwari A. Urban risk assessments: Understanding disaster and climate risks in cities, 2012, Washington, DC: The World Bank

[22] Edwards SJ, Fearnley CJ, Lowe CJ, Wilkinson E. Disaster risk reduction for natural hazards: Putting research into practice. Environmental Hazards, 2012, 11(2): 172-176

[23] ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute). 2006. ArcGIS Desktop, Release 9.2. Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute.

[24] Gaillard JC, Mercer J. From knowledge to action: Bridging gaps in disaster risk reduction. Progress in Human Geography, 2012, 37(1): 93-114

[25] Gaillard JC, Pangilinan MLCJD. Participatory mapping for raising disaster risk awareness among the youth. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 2010, 18(3): 175-179

[26] Gusmano, M.K., and V.G. Rodwin. 2006. The elderly and social isolation. http://wagner.nyu.edu/files/faculty/publications/rodwinNycCouncil021106.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[27] Gusmano, M.K., V.G. Rodwin, and M. Cantor. 2006. Urban ecology of old age in New York City (NYC): Helping vulnerable older persons. Final report to the New York Community Trust 11 Apr 2006.

[28] Gustafson P. Meanings of place: Everyday experience and theoretical conceptualizations. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2001, 21(1): 5-16

[29] Hawkins RL, Maurer K. Bonding, bridging and linking: How social capital operated in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. British Journal of Social Work, 2010, 40(6): 1777-1793

[30] Hochrainer S, Mechler R. Natural disaster risk in Asian megacities: A case for risk pooling?. Cities, 2011, 28(1): 53-61

[31] HKCSS (Hong Kong Council of Social Service). 2016. Percentage of elderly aged 65 and over living alone. http://www.socialindicators.org.hk/en/indicators/elderly/31.11. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[32] HKSARG (Hong Kong. Special Administrative Region Government). Census and Statistics Department. 2013. 2011 Hong Kong population census. http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/main-table.html. Assessed 02 Jun 2017.

[33] HKSARG (Hong Kong. Special Administrative Region Government). Census and Statistics Department. 2015. Hong Kong poverty situation report 2015. http://www.povertyrelief.gov.hk/pdf/poverty_report_2015_e.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[34] HKSARG (Hong Kong. Special Administrative Region Government). Central Registry for Rehabilitation Statistical report of the Central Registry for Rehabilitation (1999–2012), 2012, Hong Kong: HKSARG

[35] HKSARG (Hong Kong. Special Administrative Region Government). Environment Bureau. 2015. Hong Kong climate change report 2015. http://www.enb.gov.hk/sites/default/files/pdf/ClimateChangeEng.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[36] HKSARG (Hong Kong. Special Administrative Region Government). Security Bureau. 2015. Contingency plan for natural disasters. http://www.sb.gov.hk/eng/emergency/ndisaster/cpnd-e092007.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[37] Hoffman S. Preparing for disaster: Protecting the most vulnerable in emergencies. UC Davis Law Review, 2009, 42(5): 1491-1547.

[38] Hoi P-Y. Weather the storm, 2003, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press

[39] Huque AS. Farazmand A. Coping with crisis and disaster: Hong Kong disaster plan and contingency plan for natural disasters. Crisis and emergency management: Theory and practice, 2014, London: CRC Press 527-542

[40] IBM Corp. 2015. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

[41] Lawton MP. An ecological theory of aging applied to elderly housing. Environments and Aging, 1977, 31(1): 8-10.

[42] Magis K. Community resilience: An indicator of social sustainability. Society & Natural Resources, 2010, 23(5): 401-416

[43] Marmot M, Wilkinson R. Social determinants of health, 2006 2 Oxford: Oxford University Press

[44] McEntire D. Understanding and reducing vulnerability: From the approach of liabilities and capabilities. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 2011, 20(3): 294-313

[45] Mercer J. Disater risk reduction on climate change adaption: Are we reinventing the wheel?. Journal of International Development, 2010, 22(2): 247-264

[46] Mercer J, Gaillard JC, Crowley K, Shannon R, Alexander B, Day S, Becker J. Fearnley CJ, Wilkinson E, Tillyard CJ, Edwards SJ. Culture and disaster risk reduction: Lessons and opportunities. Natural hazards and disaster risk reduction, 2014, London: Routledge 4-25.

[47] Mercer J, Kelman I, Taranis L, Suchet-Pearson S. Framework for integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge for disaster risk reduction. Disasters, 2010, 34(1): 214-239

[48] Nakagawa Y, Shaw R. Social capital: A missing link to disaster recovery. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 2004, 22(1): 5-34.

[49] Ng MK. The right to healthy place-making and well-being. Planning Theory & Practice, 2016, 17(1): 3-6

[50] Ng, M.K. 2015a. Place audit for building age-friendly communities: Why? what? how? http://www.ioa.cuhk.edu.hk/images/Conference/Prof_NgMeeKam-PowerPoint.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[51] Ng MK. Silva EA, Healey P, Harris N, den Broeck PV. Researching community engagement in post-1997 Hong Kong: Collaborative or manipulative practice?. The Routledge handbook of planning research and methods, 2015, New York: Routledge 157-168.

[52] Pelling M. Adaptation to climate change: From resilience to transformation, 2010, New York: Routledge

[53] Pelling M, O’Brien K, Matyas D. Adaptation and transformation. Climatic Change, 2015, 133(1): 113-127

[54] Project for Public Spaces. 2006. Placemaking through transportation. https://www.nh.gov/dot/org/projectdevelopment/highwaydesign/contextsensitivesolutions/documents/Audit.pdf. Accessed 1 Jun 2017.

[55] Schipper L, Pelling M. Disaster risk, climate change and international development: scope for, and challenges to, integration. Disasters, 2006, 30(1): 19-38

[56] Schulz A, Northridge ME. Social determinants of health: Implications for environmental health promotion. Health Education & Behavior, 2004, 31(4): 455-471

[57] Schwab AK, Brower DJ, Eschelbac K. Hazard mitigation and preparedness: Building resilient communities, 2007, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

[58] Shaffer DR, Kipp K. Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence, 2010 8 Belmont, CA: Thomson

[59] Singapore. Ministry of Health. 2014. Creating senior-friendly communities: Tips and tools from the city for all ages project. https://www.moh.gov.sg/content/dam/moh_web/Publications/Educational%20Resources/2014/MOH-CFAA%20guidebook%20(final).pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[60] Sun Y. Facilitating generation of local knowledge using a collaborative initiator: A NIMBY case in Guangzhou, China. Habitat International, 2015, 46: 130-137

[61] Sun Y, Chao TY, Woo J, Au DWH. An institutional perspective of “Glocalization” in two Asian tigers: The “Structure–Agent–Strategy” of building an age-friendly city. Habitat International, 2017, 59: 101-109

[62] Tuladhar G, Yatabe R, Dahal RK, Bhandary NP. Disaster risk reduction knowledge of local people in Nepal. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 2015, 2(5): 1-12.

[63] UN-HABITAT (The United Nations Human Settlements Programme) State of the world’s cities 2012/2013, 2013, London: Routledge

[64] UN-HABITAT (The United Nations Human Settlements Programme). 2016. New urban agenda: Quito declaration on sustainable cities and human settlements for all. http://habitat3.org/wp-content/uploads/N1639668-English.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[65] UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). 2004. Terminology: Basic terms of disaster risk reduction. http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/gar-pdf/GAR2015_EN.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[66] UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). 2007. Hyogo framework for action 2005-2015. http://www.unisdr.org/files/1037_hyogoframeworkforactionenglish.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[67] United Nations. 2014. World urbanization prospects: The 2014 revision. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.Pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[68] Ward JH. Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1963, 58(301): 236-244

[69] Wisner B, Blaikie PM, Cannon T, Davis I. At risk: Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters, 2004, London: Routledge

[70] Wong, K.S. 2015. Hong Kong: Extreme climate risks for an extreme high-density city. http://gia.info.gov.hk/general/201512/08/P201512080268_0268_156317.pdf. Accessed 25 Apr 2017.

[71] Woo J. Aging in Hong Kong: A comparative perspective, 2013, London: Routledge

[72] Yeh, A.G.O. 2011. High-density living in Hong Kong. https://lsecities.net/media/objects/articles/high-density-living-in-hong-kong/en-gb/. Accessed 1 Jun 2017.