OpticalFiber Sensing Materials from a Green Chemistry Perspective: Principles,Applications, and a Sustainable Prospectus

Abstract

Opticalfiber sensing technology offers high sensitivity, electromagnetic immunity, anddistributed sensing capabilities, with broad applications in environmental,biomedical, and industrial monitoring. However, its reliance onheavy-metal-doped glasses, rare-earth elements, and non-biodegradable polymersimposes significant environmental burdens across their lifecycle. This reviewestablishes a systematic framework based on the Twelve Principles of GreenChemistry to assess and redesign optical fiber sensing materials, includingsilica, soft glass, and polymer matrices, as well as functional coatings,fluorescent probes, and plasmonic nanostructures. It highlights greenalternatives such as sol-gel synthesis, bio-based polymers, carbon quantumdots, and biosynthesized nanoparticles. A multi-dimensional sustainabilityassessment, covering performance, environmental impact, economics, and socialfactors, identifies key challenges such as performance-environment trade-offsand scaling-up costs. Future pathways integrating AI-assisted design, additivemanufacturing, modular systems, and policy support are proposed. The studyargues that green attributes and high performance are synergistic, positioninggreen optical fiber sensing as essential for achieving circular economy goalsand UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Keywords

Green chemistry / Opticalfiber sensing / Sustainable materials / Life cycle assessment / Environmentalmonitoring

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.Y., C.Z. and J.Z.; Methodology, Y.Y.; Software, C.Z. and Q.Z.; Formal Analysis, Y.Y.; Investigation, Y.Y., M.S. and C.Z.; Resources, Y.Y. and G.Z.; Data Curation, G.Z.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Y.Y.; Writing—Review & Editing, G.Z.; Visualization, Y.Y.; Funding Acquisition, G.Z.

Ethics Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (grant no. E2025209079), Science and Technology Project of Hebei Education Department (grant no. BJ2026077) and Key Research Project of North China University of Science and Technology (grant no. ZD-YG-202301).

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References

[1] Eid MM. Optical fiber sensors: Review of technology and applications. Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci. 2022, 25, 1038-1046. DOI: 10.11591/ijeecs.v25.i2.pp1038-1046

[2] Udd E. An overview of fiber-optic sensors. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1995, 66, 4015-4030. DOI: 10.1063/1.1145411

[3] Pendão C, Silva I. Optical Fiber Sensors and Sensing Networks: Overview of the Main Principles and Applications. Sensors 2022, 22, 7554. DOI: 10.3390/s22197554

[4] Zawawi MA, O’Keffe S, Lewis E. Intensity-modulated fiber optic sensor for health monitoring applications: A comparative review. Sonser Rev. 2013, 33, 57-67. DOI: 10.1108/02602281311294351

[5] Berkovic G, Rotter S, Shafir E, Scandale W, Todesco E. Wavelength-modulated fiber optic sensor for high precision displacement measurement. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2002, 73, 3687-3691. DOI: 10.1063/1.1502001

[6] Kadhim RA. Strain measurement by using phase modulated fiber optic sensors technology. Diyala J. Eng. Sci. 2015, 8, 3687-3691. DOI: 10.24237/djes.2015.08103

[7] Caucheteur C, Guo T, Albert J. Polarization-assisted fiber Bragg grating sensors: Tutorial and review. J. Light. Technol. 2017, 35, 3311-3322. DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2016.2585738

[8] Wen JL, Xi TW, Yang TY, Zheng ZY, Lan LF, Yang B, et al. A Two-Photon 3D printed fiber optic ultrasonic sensor with Lateral-Force resistance for detection in High-Voltage environments. Opt. Laser Technol. 2025, 192, 114032. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2025.114032

[9] Fernicola V, Crovini L. Digital optical fiber point sensor for high-temperature measurement. J. Light. Technol. 1995, 13, 1331-1334. DOI: 10.1109/50.400680

[10] Li CL, Tang JG, Cheng C, Cai LB, Yang MH. FBG Arrays for Quasi-Distributed Sensing: A Review. Photonic Sens. 2021, 11, 91-108. DOI: 10.1007/s13320-021-0615-8

[11] Lu P, Lalam N, Badar M, Liu B, Chorpening BT, Buric MP, et al. Distributed optical fiber sensing: Review and perspective. Appl. Phys. Rev. 2019, 6, 041302. DOI: 10.1063/1.5113955

[12] Zhang XH, Zhu HH, Jiang X, Broere W. Distributed fiber optic sensors for tunnel monitoring: A state-of-the-art review. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2024, 16, 3841-3863. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrmge.2024.01.008

[13] Ferdinand P. The Evolution of Optical Fiber Sensors Technologies During the 35 Last Years and Their Applications in Structure Health Monitoring. In Proceedings of the EWSHM—7th European Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Nantes, France, 8–11 July 2014; pp. 914–929.

[14] Annamdas KKK, Annamdas VGM. Review on developments in fiber optical sensors and applications. In Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications VII; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 2010; Volume 7677, pp. 205–216. DOI:10.1117/12.849799

[15] Portosi V, Laneve D, Falconi MC, Prudenzano F. Advances on Photonic Crystal Fiber Sensors and Applications. Sensors 2019, 19, 1892. DOI: 10.3390/s19081892

[16] Ngiejungbwen LA, Hamdaoui H, Chen MY. Polymer optical fiber and fiber Bragg grating sensors for biomedical engineering Applications: A comprehensive review. Opt. Laser Technol. 2024, 170, 110187. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.110187

[17] Malinka F, Vachek O, Krizan D, Stipal J, Marques C, Siska P, et al. Advanced intensity-modulated fiber sensors for scalable sensing. iScience 2025, 28, 113670. DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.113670

[18] Afroozeh A, Zeinali B. Improving the sensitivity of new passive optical fiber ring sensor based on meta-dielectric materials. Opt. Laser Technol. 2022, 68, 102797. DOI: 10.1016/j.yofte.2021.102797

[19] Lou JY, Wang YP, Tong LM. Microfiber Optical Sensors: A Review. Sensors 2014, 14, 5823-5844. DOI: 10.3390/s140405823

[20] Velha P, Nannipieri T, Signorini A, Morosi M, Solazzi M, Barone F. Monitoring Large Rail-ways Infrastructures Using Hybrid Optical Fibers Sensor Systems. IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 2020, 21, 5177-5188. DOI: 10.1109/TITS.2019.2949752

[21] Niu HS, Yin FF, Kim S, Wang WX, Yoon DY, Wang C. Advances in flexible sensors for intelligent perception system enhanced by artificial intelligence. InfoMat 2023, 5, e12412. DOI: 10.1002/inf2.12412

[22] Pinto JTM, Amaral KJ, Hartard S, Janissek PR, Helling K. Reducing the environmental impacts of vitreous optical fiber production—A Life Cycle Impact Assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 165, 762-776. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.07.141

[23] Pecht M, Shibutani T, Wu LF. A reliability assessment guide for the transition planning to lead-free electronics for companies whose products are RoHS exempted or excluded Micro-electronics Reliability. Microelectron. Reliab. 2016, 62, 113-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.microrel.2016.03.020

[24] Chen L, Msigwa G, Yang MY, Osman AI, Fawzy S, Rooney DW, et al. Strategies to achieve a carbon neutral society: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2022, 20, 2277-2310. DOI: 10.1007/s10311-022-01435-8

[25] Sheldon RA. Engineering a more sustainable world through catalysis and green chemistry. J. R. Soc. Interface 2016, 13, 20160087. DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0087

[26] Chen TL, Kim H, Pan SY, Tseng PC, Lin YP, Chiang PC. Implementation of green chemistry principles in circular economy system towards sustainable development goals: Challenges and perspectives. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 716, 136998. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136998

[27] Mulvihill JM, Beach ES, Zimmerman JB, Anastas PT. Green Chemistry and Green Engineering: A Framework for Sustainable Technology Development. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2011, 36, 271-293. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-032009-095500

[28] Sheldon RA. The E factor 25 years on: The rise of green chemistry and sustainability. Green. Chem. 2017, 19, 18-43. DOI: 10.1039/C6GC02157C

[29] Anastas PT, Kirchhoff MM. Origins, current status, and future challenges of green chemistry. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 686-694. DOI: 10.1021/ar010065m

[30] Lee B. Review of the present status of optical fiber sensors. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2003, 9, 57-79. DOI: 10.1016/S1068-5200(02)00527-8

[31] Anastas P, Eghbali N. Green Chemistry: Principles and Practice. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 301-312. DOI: 10.1039/B918763B

[32] Ivanković1 A, Dronjić A, Bevanda AM, Talić S. Review of 12 Principles of Green Chemistry in Practice. Int. J. Sustain. Green. Energy 2017, 6, 39-48. DOI: 10.11648/j.ijrse.20170603.12

[33] Martínez J, Cortés JF, Miranda R. Green Chemistry Metrics, A Review. Processes 2022, 10, 1274. DOI: 10.3390/pr10071274

[34] Abdussalam-Mohammed W, Ali AQ, Errayes AO. Green Chemistry: Principles, Applications, and Disadvantages. Chem. Methodol. 2020, 4, 408-423. DOI: 10.33945/SAMI/CHEMM.2020.4.4

[35] Wale T, Suryavanshi S, Wavare V, Sharmale M, Phalke P. Review on Green Chemistry. J. Drug Deliv. Ther. 2023, 13, 190-193. DOI: 10.22270/jddt.v13i7.5919

[36] Ameta R, Ameta C, Tak P, Benjamin S, Ameta R, Ameta SC. Green chemistry: A step towards clean and sustainable development. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 2012, 89, 999-1018. DOI: 10.5281/ZENODO.5767140

[37] Zimmerman JB, Anastas PT, Erythropel HC, Leitner W. Designing for a green chemistry future. Science 2020, 367, 397-400. DOI: 10.1126/science.aay3060

[38] Gan JL, Yang AP, Guo QY, Yang ZM. Flexible Optical Fiber Sensing: Materials, Methodologies, and Applications. Adv. Devices Instrum. 2024, 5, 0046. DOI: 10.34133/adi.0046

[39] Khegai AM, Alyshev SV, Vakhrushev AS, Riumkin KE, Umnikov AA, Firstov SV. Recent advances in Bi-doped silica-based optical fibers: A short review. J. Non-Cryst. Solids X 2022, 16, 100126. DOI: 10.1016/j.nocx.2022.100126

[40] Gierej A, Rochlitz K, Filipkowski A, Buczyński R, Van Vlierberghe S, Dubruel P, et al. Microstructured Optical Fiber Made from Biodegradable and Biocompatible Poly(D,L-Lactic Acid) (PDLLA). J. Light. Technol. 2022, 41, 275-285. DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2022.3205451

[41] Kim KJ, Lu P, Culp JT, Ohodnicki PR. Metal–Organic Framework Thin Film Coated Optical Fiber Sensors: A Novel Waveguide-Based Chemical Sensing Platform. ACS Sens. 2018, 3, 386−394. DOI: 10.1021/acssensors. 7b00808

[42] Li CX, Yang WL, Wang M, Yu XY, Fan JY, Xiong YL, et al. A Review of Coating Materials Used to Improve the Performance of Optical Fiber Sensors. Sensors 2020, 20, 4215. DOI: 10.3390/s20154215

[43] Li CJ, Anastas PT. Green Chemistry: Present and future. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 1413-1414. DOI: 10.1039/C1CS90064A

[44] Bing W, Yu GB, Zhang HQ. Research on MEMS Kerosene Gas Sensor Technology Based on the Nano Sensitive Material. J. Comput. Theor. Nanosci. 2016, 13, 5676-5681. DOI: 10.1166/jctn.2016.5470

[45] Choudhury SR, Jaluria Y. Practical aspects in the drawing of an optical fiber. J. Mater. Res. 1998, 13, 483-493. DOI: 10.1557/JMR.1998.0063

[46] Beckers M, Schlüter T, Vad T, Griesa T, Bunge CA. An overview on fabrication methods for polymer optical fibers. Polym. Int. 2015, 64, 25-36. DOI: 10.1002/pi.4805

[47] Gangal A, Choudhary K, Duseja M, Shukla RK, Kumar S. Green synthesis of Silver nanoparticles from plant oil for enzyme-functionalized optical fiber biosensor: Improved sensitivity and selectivity in ascorbic acid detection. Opt. Laser Technol. 2025, 186, 112635. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2025.112635

[48] Talataisong W, Ismaeel R, Sandoghchi SR, Rutirawut T, Topley G, Beresna M, et al. Novel method for manufacturing optical fiber: Extrusion and drawing of microstructured polymer optical fibers from a 3D printer. Opt. Express 2018, 26, 32007-32013. DOI: 10.1364/OE.26.032007

[49] Ashraf M, Qureshi KK. Optical fiber sensors in biomedical: Trends and emerging research—A review. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2025, 95, 104404. DOI: 10.1016/j.yofte.2025.104404

[50] Ashry I, Mao Y, Wang BW, Hveding F, Bukhamsin AY, Ng TK, et al. A Review of Distributed Fiber-Optic Sensing in the Oil and Gas Industry. J. Light. Technol. 2022, 40, 1407-1431. DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2021.3135653

[51] Mahendran RS, Wang L, Machavaram VR, Pandita SD, Chen R, Kukureka SN, et al. Fiber-optic sensor design for chemical process and environmental monitoring. Opt. Lasers Eng. 2009, 47, 1069-1076. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlaseng.2009.05.013

[52] Singh S, Subramaniam K, Chittora N, Brolin A, Palani I. Studies on development of NiTi-integrated optical fiber sensor and its life cycle behavior. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2020, 31, 869-881. DOI: 10.1177/1045389X20905969

[53] Shan DY, Zhang CJ, Kalaba S, Mehta N, Kim GB, Liu ZW, et al. Flexible biodegradable citrate-based polymeric step-index optical fiber. Biomaterials 2017, 143, 142-148. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.08.003

[54] Song X, Chang MH, Pecht M. Rare-Earth Elements in Lighting and Optical Applications and Their Recycling. JOM 2013, 65, 1276-1282. DOI: 10.1007/s11837-013-0737-6

[55] Sheldon RA. Green chemistry and resource efficiency: Towards a green economy. Green. Chem. 2016, 18, 3180-3183. DOI: 10.1039/C6GC90040B

[56] Dragic PD, Cavillon M, Ballato J. Materials for optical fiber lasers: A review. Appl. Phys. Rev. 2018, 5, 041301. DOI: 10.1063/1.5048410

[57] Zubair HT, Begum M, Moradi F, Rahman AKMM, Mahdiraji GA, Oresegun A, et al. Recent advances in silica glass optical fiber for dosimetry applications. IEEE Photonics J. 2020, 12, 6801525. DOI: 10.1109/JPHOT.2020.2985857

[58] Ballato J, Hawkins T, Foy P, Kokuoz B, Stolen R, McMillen C, et al. On the fabrication of all-glass optical fibers from crystals. J. Appl. Phys. 2009, 105, 053110. DOI: 10.1063/1.3080135

[59] Wood D, Walker K, MacChesney J, Simpson J, Csencsits R. Germanium chemistry in the MCVD process for optical fiber fabrication. J. Light. Technol. 1987, 5, 277-285. DOI: 10.1109/JLT.1987.1075496

[60] Pilz S, Najafi H, Ryser M, Romano V. Granulated Silica Method for the Fiber Preform Production. Fibers 2017, 5, 24. DOI:10.3390/fib5030024

[61] Pilz S, Najafi H, El Sayed A, Boas J, Kummer D, Scheuner J, et al. Progress in the fabrication of optical fibers by the sol-gel-based granulated silica method. In Micro-Structured and Specialty Optical Fibres IV; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 2016; Volume 9886, pp. 173–181. DOI:10.1117/12.2227569

[62] Suzuki CK, Torikai D. Vitreous silica processing by vapor phase deposition for optical fiber preform. Radiat. Eff. Defects Solids 1998, 147, 55-63. DOI: 10.1080/10420159808226387

[63] Tandon P. Fundamental understanding of processes involved in optical fiber manufacturing using outside vapor deposition method. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2005, 2, 504-513. DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7402.2005.02051.x

[64] Shahin R, Al Alami J, Malahfji A, Helal M, Al Hazza M. The Role of Recycled Glass in Optical Fiber Technology for Circular Economies: A Review. Int. J. Eng. Mater. Manuf. 2025, 10, 35-43. Available online: https://www.deerhillpublishing.com/index.php/ijemm/article/view/291 (accessed on 1 December 2025).

[65] Ballato J, Ebendorff-Heidepriem H, Zhao J-B, Petit L, Troles J. Glass and process development for the next generation of optical fibers: A review. Fibers 2017, 5, 11, DOI:10.3390/fib5010011

[66] Colangelo S. Reducing the environmental footprint of glass manufacturing. Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci. 2024, 15, 350-366. DOI: 10.1111/ijag.16674

[67] Kasik I, Peterka P, Mrazek J, Honzatko P. Silica optical fibers doped with nanoparticles for fiber lasers and broadband sources. Curr. Nanosci. 2016, 12, 277-290. DOI: 10.2174/1573413711666150624170638

[68] Paul M, Kir’yanov A, Barmenkov Y, Pal M, Youngman R, Dhar A, et al. Phase-Separated Alumina–Silica Glass-Based Erbium-Doped Fibers for Optical Amplifier: Material and Optical Characterization along with Amplification Properties. Fibers 2018, 6, 67. DOI: 10.3390/fib6030067

[69] Wang WC, Zhou B, Xu SH, Yang ZM, Zhang QY. Recent advances in soft optical glass fifber and fifber lasers. Progress Mater. Sci. 2019, 101, 90-171. DOI: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2018.11.003

[70] Yang LL, Yan B, Zhao RW, Wu DD, Xu TX, Yang PL, et al. Ultra-low fusion splicing loss between silica and ZBLAN fiber for all-fiber structured high-power mid-infrared supercontinuum generation. Infrared Phys. Technol. 2021, 113, 103576. DOI: 10.1016/j.infrared.2020.103576

[71] Musgraves JD. Chalcogenide glasses: Engineering in the infrared spectrum. Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 2024, 103, 22-28. Available online: https://ceramics.org/wp-content/bulletin/2024/articles/F-Musgraves_may24.pdf (accessed on 1 December 2025).

[72] Parnell H, Butterworth JH, Sakr H, Tang Z, Furniss D, Benson TM, et al. Ge-Sb-Se glass fiber-optics for in-vivo mid-infrared optical biopsy. In Optical Biopsy XIV: Toward Real-Time Spectroscopic Imaging and Diagnosis; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 2016; Volume 9703, pp. 44–57. DOI:10.1117/12.2209044

[73] Feng Z, Wang J, Wu GL, Wang JJ, Liang XL, Xu TS, et al. Arsenic-free low-loss sulfide glass fiber for mid-infrared supercontinuum generation. Infrared Phys. Technol. 2021, 113, 103618. DOI: 10.1016/j.infrared.2020.103618

[74] Lin AX, Zhang AD, Bushong EJ, Toulouse J. Solid-core tellurite glass fiber for infrared and nonlinear applications. Opt. Express 2009, 17, 16716-16721. DOI: 10.1364/OE.17.016716

[75] Mahltig B. High-Performance Fibres—A Review of Properties and IR-Spectra. Tekstilec 2021, 64, 96-118. DOI: 10.14502/Tekstilec2021.64.96-118

[76] Churbanov MF, Snopatin GE, Shiryaev VS, Plotnichenko VG, Dianov EM. Recent advances in preparation of high-purity glasses based on arsenic chalcogenides for fiber optics. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 2011, 357, 2352-2357. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2010.11.057

[77] Teng CX, Min R, Zheng J, Deng SJ, Li MS, Hou L, et al. Intensity-Modulated Polymer Optical Fiber-Based Refractive Index Sensor: A Review. Sensors 2022, 22, 81. DOI: 10.3390/s22010081

[78] Yu RJ, Zhang B, Chen MY, Huo L, Tian ZG, Bai XZ. A new solution of reducing polymer optical fiber losses. Opt. Commun. 2006, 266, 536-540. DOI: 10.1016/j.optcom.2006.05.045

[79] Eijkelenborg MA, Argyros A, Leon-Saval SG. Polycarbonate hollow-core microstructured optical fiber. Opt. Lett. 2008, 33, 2446-2448. DOI: 10.1364/OL.33.002446

[80] Nizamoglu S, Gather M, Humar M, Choi M, Kim S, Kim KS, et al. Bioabsorbable polymer optical waveguides for deep-tissue photomedicine. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7, 10374. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10374

[81] Gierej A, Geernaert T, Vlierberghe SV, Dubruel P, Thienpont H, Berghmans F. Challenges in the Fabrication of Biodegradable and Implantable Optical Fibers for Biomedical Applications. Materials 2021, 14, 1972. DOI: 10.3390/ma14081972

[82] Gierej A, Vagenende M, Filipkowski A, Siwicki B, Buczynski R, Thienpont H, et al. Poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA) biodegradable and biocompatible polymer optical fiber. J. Light. Technol. 2019, 37, 1916-1923. DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2019.2895220

[83] Peters K. Polymer optical fiber sensors—A review. Smart Mater. Struct. 2011, 20, 013002. DOI: 10.1088/0964-1726/20/1/013002

[84] Zhou YF, Zhang YN, Han B, Cheng LL, Li DX, Zheng WL, et al. Biochemical sensor based on functional material assisted optical fiber surface plasmon resonance: A review. Measurement 2023, 207, 112353. DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2022.112353

[85] Pizzoferrato R. Optical Chemical Sensors: Design and Applications. Sensors 2023, 23, 5284. DOI: 10.3390/s23115284

[86] Jyoti , Dutta T, Kumar P, Jangra R, Sharma AK, Singh M. Recent advances in Metal-Organic Framework-Based fiber optic sensors and Photodetectors: Synthesis, Properties, and applications. Chem. Eng. J. 2025, 507, 160543. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2025.160543

[87] Kong XY, Wu ZQ, Strømme M, Xu C. Ambient Aqueous Synthesis of Imine-Linked Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) and Fabrication of Freestanding Cellulose Nanofiber@COF Nanopapers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2024, 146, 742-751. DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10691

[88] Xue R, Liu YS, Huang SL, Yang GY. Recent Progress of Covalent Organic Frameworks Applied in Electrochemical Sensors. ACS Sens. 2023, 8, 2124-2148. DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c00269

[89] Dubey P. An overview on animal/human biomass-derived carbon dots for optical sensing and bioimaging applications. RSC Adv. 2023, 13, 35088-35126. DOI: 10.1039/d3ra06976a

[90] Rivero PJ, Goicoechea J, Arregui FJ. Optical fiber sensors based on polymeric sensitive coatings. Polymers 2018, 10, 280. DOI: 10.3390/polym10030280

[91] D’Amato R, Polimadei A, Terranova G, Caponero MA. Humidity Sensing by Chitosan-Coated Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBG). Sensors 2021, 21, 3348. DOI: 10.3390/s21103348

[92] Carrillo-Betancourt RA, López-Camero AD, Hernández-Cordero J. Luminescent Polymer Composites for Optical Fiber Sensors. Polymers 2023, 15, 505. DOI: 10.3390/polym15030505

[93] Dhariwal J, Rao GK, Vaya D. Recent advancements towards the green synthesis of carbon quantum dots as an innovative and eco-friendly solution for metal ion sensing and monitoring. RSC Sustain. 2024, 2, 11-36. DOI: 10.1039/d3su00375b

[94] Cai XL, Liu B. Aggregation-Induced Emission: Recent Advances in Materials and Biomedical Applications. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 9868-9886. DOI: 10.1002/anie.202000845

[95] He P, Chen Y, Li X-N, Yan Y-Y, Liu C. Aggregation-Induced Emission-Active Iridium(III) Complexes for Sensing Picric Acid in Water. Chemosensors 2023, 11, 177. DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors11030177

[96] Rawat S, Pranav SA, Denny T, Bhaskaran M. Perovskite-based photocatalysis for microbial inactivation: Materials, mechanisms, and challenges. Nanoscale Adv. 2026, 8, 361-394. DOI: 10.1039/D5NA00737B

[97] Li CL, Wang HL, Wang F, Li TF, Xu MJ, Wang H, et al. Ultrafast and broadband photodetectors based on a perovskite/ organic bulk heterojunction for large-dynamic-range imaging. Light Sci. Appl. 2020, 9, 31. DOI: 10.1038/s41377-020-0264-5

[98] Lee WJ, Yeh KC, Wang HY, Hsu HY, Lin MC, Shen JW, et al. Label-free pathogen DNA sensing based on the anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) transferred localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) sensor integrating the automated microfluidics and spectra mapping acquisition. Surf. Interfaces 2025, 56, 105675. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfin.2024.105675

[99] Tippayawat P, Phromviyo N, Boueroy P, Chompoosor A. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles in aloe vera plant extract prepared by a hydrothermal method and their synergistic antibacterial activity. Peer J. 2016, 4, e2589. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2589

[100] Agrawal A, Cho SH, Zandi O, Ghosh S, Johns RW, Milliron DJ. Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance in Semiconductor Nanocrystals. Chem. Rev. 2018, 118, 3121-3207. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00613

[101] Lv JW, Wang JX, Yang L, Liu W, Fu HH, Chu PK, et al. Recent advances of optical fiber biosensors based on surface plasmon resonance: Sensing principles, structures, and prospects. Sens. Diagn. 2024, 3, 1369-1391. DOI: 10.1039/D4SD00045E

[102] Butt MA, Voronkov GS, Grakhova EP, Kutluyarov RV, Kazanskiy NL, Khonina SN. Environmental Monitoring: A Comprehensive Review on Optical Waveguide and Fiber-Based Sensors. Biosensors 2022, 12, 1038. DOI: 10.3390/bios12111038

[103] Lyu DJ, Huang Q, Wu XK, Nie YB, Yang MH. Optical fiber sensors for water and air quality monitoring: A review. Opt. Eng. 2024, 63, 031004. DOI: 10.1117/1.OE.63.3.031004

[104] Cennamo N, Arcadio F, Perri C, Zeni L, Sequeira F, Bilro L, et al. Water monitoring in smart cities exploiting plastic optical fibers and molecularly imprinted polymers. The case of PFBS detection. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Measurements & Networking (M&N), Catania, Italy, 8–10 July 2019; pp. 1–6. DOI:10.1109/IWMN.2019.8805049

[105] Wang PY, Li L, Pang XP, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Dong WF, et al. Chitosan-based carbon nanoparticles as a heavy metal indicator and for wastewater treatment. RSC Adv. 2021, 11, 12015-12021. DOI: 10.1039/D1RA00692D

[106] Vitoria I, Zamarreño CR, Ozcariz A, Matias IR. Fiber Optic Gas Sensors Based on Lossy Mode Resonances and Sensing Materials Used Therefor: A Comprehensive Review. Sensors 2021, 21, 731. DOI:10.3390/s21030731

[107] Mow RE, Russell-Parks GA, Redwine GEB, Petel BE, Gennett T, Braunecker WA. Polymer-Coated Covalent Organic Frameworks as Porous Liquids for Gas Storage. Chem. Mater. 2024, 36, 1579−1590. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.3c02828

[108] Chen XY, Zeng M, Yang JH, Hu NT, Duan XY, Cai W, et al. Two-Dimensional Bimetallic Phthalocyanine Covalent-Organic-Framework-Based Chemiresistive Gas Sensor for ppb-Level NO₂ Detection. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1660. DOI: 10.3390/nano13101660

[109] Insou X, Méhauté SL, Bodiou L, Claudot S, Provino L, Haboucha A, et al. Silica hollow-core anti-resonant fiber for harsh environment mid-infrared sensing applications. In Micro-Structured and Specialty Optical Fibres VII; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 2022; Volume 12140, pp. 13−21. DOI:10.1117/12.2621689

[110] Leone M, Consales M, Passeggio G, Buontempo S, Zaraket H, Youssef A, et al. Fiber optic soil water content sensor for precision farming. Opt. Laser Technol. 2022, 149, 107816. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107816

[111] Leone M. Advances in fiber optic sensors for soil moisture monitoring: A review. Results Opt. 2022, 7, 100213. DOI: 10.1016/j.rio.2022.100213

[112] Pandey U, Vashisth A, Mishra A. AI and IoT Enabled Soil Health Monitoring System. In Proceedings of the 2024 Second International Conference Computational and Characterization Techniques in Engineering & Sciences (IC3TES), Lucknow, India, 15–16 November 2024; pp. 1–6. DOI:10.1109/IC3TES62412.2024.10877563

[113] Sousa RPCL, Figueira RB, Costa SPG, Raposo MMM. Optical fiber sensors for biocide monitoring: Examples, transduction materials, and prospects. ACS Sens. 2020, 12, 3678-3709. DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01615

[114] Zhao Z, Yin HT, Xiao JZ, Cui M, Huang RL, Su RX. Efficient Sequential Detection of Two Antibiotics Using a Fiber-Optic Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor. Sensors 2024, 24, 2126. DOI: 10.3390/s24072126

[115] Luo ZW, Li MY, Kong XY, Li Y, Li WW, Tian Z, et al. Advance on fiber optic‐based biosensors for precisionmedicine: From diagnosis to therapy. Interdiscip. Med. 2023, 5, 1-16. DOI: 10.1002/INMD.20230022

[116] Jin FZ, Xu ZY, Cao DL, Ran Y, Guan BO. Fiber-Optic Biosensors for Cancer Theranostics: From in Vitro to in Vivo. Photonic Sens. 2024, 14, 240415. DOI:10.1007/s13320-024-0706-4

[117] Gharbi A, Kallel AY, Kanoun O, Cheikhrouhou-Koubaa W, Contag CH, Antoniac I, et al. A Biodegradable Bioactive Glass-Based Hydration Sensor for Biomedical Applications. Micromachines 2023, 14, 226. DOI: 10.3390/mi14010226

[118] Tabassum S, Kumar R. Advances in Fiber-Optic Technology for Point-of-Care Diagnosis and In Vivo Biosensing. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2020, 5, 1900792. DOI: 10.1002/admt.201900792

[119] Qian F, Jia RY, Cheng MD, Chaudhary A, Melhi S, Mekkey SD, et al. An overview of polylactic acid (PLA) nanocomposites for sensors. Adv. Compos. Hybrid. Mater. 2024, 7, 75. DOI: 10.1007/s42114-024-00887-6

[120] Tu DR, Tang YW, Huang YY, Tang MY, Li LR, Li Y, et al. Next-Generation Wearable/Implanted Sensors Based on Fiber Optic and Its Application: From In Vitro to In Vivo. ACS Sens. 2025, 10, 3818−3839. DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.5c00044

[121] Bado MF, Casas JR. A review of recent distributed optical fiber sensors applications for civil engineering structural health monitoring. Sensors 2021, 21, 1818. DOI: 10.3390/s21051818

[122] Monteiro CS, Rodrigues AV, Viveiros D, Linhares C, Mendes H, Silva SO, et al. Optical Fiber Sensors for Structural Monitoring in Power Transformers. Sensors 2021, 21, 6127. DOI: 10.3390/s21186127

[123] Monsberger CM, Lienhart W, Kluckner A. Continuous strain measurements in a shotcrete tunnel lining using distributed fibre optic sensing. In Proceedings of the 9th European Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Manchester, UK, 10–13 July 2018; pp. 1–13.

[124] Tan X, Poorghasem S, Huang Y, Feng X, Bao Y. Monitoring of pipelines subjected to interactive bending and dent using distributed fiber optic sensors. Autom. Constr. 2024, 160, 105306. DOI: 10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105306

[125] Mihailov SJ. Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Harsh Environments. Sensors 2012, 12, 1898-1918. DOI: 10.3390/s120201898

[126] Ye XW, Su YH, Han JP. Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructure Using Optical Fiber Sensing Technology: A Comprehensive Review. Sci. World J. 2014, 2014, 652329. DOI: 10.1155/2014/652329

[127] Hocdé S, Boussard-Plédel C, Fonteneau G, Lecoq D, Ma HL, Lucas J. Recent developments in chemical sensing using infrared glass fibers. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 2000, 274, 17-22. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-3093(00)00179-4

[128] Yang K, Shen Y, He K, Zhang TT, Xu R, Zhao SL, et al. An optical fiber temperature sensor based on fluorescence intensity ratio used for real-time monitoring of chemical reactions. Ceram. Int. 2021, 47, 33537-33543. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.08.262

[129] Phuong NTT, Dang VQ, Hieu LV, Bach TN, Khuyen BX, Ta HKT, et al. Functionalized silver nanoparticles for SERS amplification with enhanced reproducibility and for ultrasensitive optical fiber sensing in environmental and biochemical assays. RSC Adv. 2022, 12, 31352-31362. DOI: 10.1039/d2ra06074d

[130] Wang Q, Yin XY, Yin P, Ge YQ, Wang L, Zhao Y, et al. Research progress of resonance optical fiber sensors modified by low-dimensional materials. Laser Photonics Rev. 2023, 17, 2200859. DOI: 10.1002/lpor.202200859

[131] Culshaw B. Optical Fiber Sensor Technologies: Opportunities and-Perhaps-Pitfalls. J. Light. Technol. 2004, 22, 39-50. DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2003.822139

[132] Wang K, Wang Q, Zou LL, Su Y, Liu KH, Li W, et al. Study on thermal protection and temperature of PMMA plastic optical fiber for concentrated sunlight transmission in daylighting. Sol. Energy 2023, 253, 127-136. DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2023.02.015

[133] Patel MS, Singh P, Singh MK, Yadav S, Rawat RK, Kumar A, et al. Experimental and computational investigation of CH₃NH₃PbI₃ material for next-generation fiber optic applications. Chem. Inorg. Mater. 2025, 7, 100129. DOI: 10.1016/j.cinorg.2025.100129

[134] Jafarzadeh S, Oladzadabbasabadi N, Dheyab MA, Lalabadi MA, Sheibani S, Ghasemlou M, et al. Emerging Trends in Smart and Sustainable Nano-Biosensing: The Role of Green Nanomaterials. Ind. Crops Prod. 2025, 223, 120108. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2024.120108

[135] Martins B, Lopes CM, Gomes AC, Lúcio M. Sustainable synthesis of carbon nano-materials: Green methods from biomass waste for theranostic and bioremediation applications. Mater. Today Nano 2025, 32, 100697. DOI: 10.1016/j.mtnano.2025.100697

[136] Malin N. The cost of green materials. Build. Res. Inf. 2000, 28, 408-412. DOI: 10.1080/096132100418564

[137] McDowall SC, Lanphear E, Cucurachi S, Blanco CF. T-reX: Quantifying waste and material footprints in current and future Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) databases. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2025, 222, 108464. DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108464

[138] Rabiee N, Dokmeci MR, Zarrabi A, Makvandi P, Saeb MR, Karimi-Maleh H, et al. Green Biomaterials: Fundamental principles. Green. Biomater. 2023, 1, 1-4. DOI: 10.1080/29934168.2023.2268943