Theorising the contemporary architectural trends in the context of the twenty-first century variables

Abstract

No one could have anticipated the tremendous changes that occurred to the natural and built environment throughout the last few decades. Climate change, the spread of pandemics, natural disasters, the increasing rates of Carbon emissions, and the AI revolution are among the critical issues that have radically impacted architectural thought. The question is: Are architects today prepared to design buildings and cities that can withstand these changes? The problem lies in the shortage of comprehensive knowledge of the theoretical foundations that can guide architects in addressing these variables. This paper, therefore, aims to produce a comprehensive theorisation chart for contemporary architectural trends, generated and developed between 2000 and 2025. Based on qualitative methodology, the paper begins with a literature review defining the meanings of Architectural Trend, Contemporary Architectural Trend, and Theorisation, then identifies the significant twenty-first-century variables. The paper demonstrates previous readings and concludes a framework of analysis. The research analyses six case studies, followed by a detailed comparison. In the discussion, the paper reaches the new theorisation ‒ evolutionary tree ‒ chart. As a result, this chart may provide a new classification that guides architects, critics, and students in comprehending the reflections of twenty-first-century variables on architecture.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Contemporary architecture / Twenty-first century variable / Architectural trend / Theorisation

1 Introduction

Architects are currently grappling with challenges that were unprecedented in the past centuries, including population issues, environmental impacts, advancements in materials and technologies, and the rapid growth of new software, all of which necessitate the development of innovative technologies and tools to address the 21st-century challenges. Contemporary architecture is considered a catalyst for change, establishing new theoretical perspectives that reflect the unique historical moment of the 21st century (Alsheikh et al., 2020). Current architectural trends are intricately connected to dynamic elements in the socio-cultural, environmental, and technical realms, with a particular emphasis on sustainability driven by a deep understanding of climate change. In the 21st century, urbanisation drives a shift toward sustainable urban planning and mixed-use developments that blend residential, commercial, and recreational spaces, reducing environmental impact and enhancing community living. The 21st century is characterised by rapid change, global connectivity, and a strong commitment to the environment and its inhabitants (Naghavi and Mazaherian, 2019). A detailed exploration of current trends highlights prevailing perspectives on subjects like sustainability, inclusion, and the integration of technology. Architecture serves as a reflection of societal ideologies, with an increased emphasis on environmental sustainability in the 21st century, prioritising eco-friendly materials and energy efficiency as crucial aspects. The defining feature of contemporary architecture lies in the assimilation of state-of-the-art technology, including digital tools and intelligent systems. In a rapidly changing world, architectural trends must possess the flexibility to adapt to evolving conditions, considering factors such as urbanisation, population growth, and global challenges (Pradono, 2020). The architectural trends of the 21st century are shaped by a multifaceted interplay of factors, encompassing technological advancements, societal shifts, and environmental considerations. To contextualise these trends, it is essential to explore key aspects and ideas that have surfaced within the framework of the variables characterising the 21st century. These trends are interconnected and in a constant state of evolution as architects continually respond to the challenges and opportunities presented by the dynamic landscape of the 21st century.

1.1 Problem definition

This research addresses a crucial problem affecting the architectural environment, which is anchored in the complex deficiency issues our world is currently facing, by illuminating the 21st-century variables. The problem lies in the shortage of comprehensive knowledge of the theoretical foundations that can direct architects to face the 21st-century variables. Within the overlap and confusion of the image, the architectural trends―since 2000―have become mixed and intertwined due to the following global issues.

Figure 1 presents seven global issues that have noticeably contributed to reshaping contemporary architecture in the 21st century.

(I) Globalisation: The increased cross-culture and cross-economies have dissolved regional boundaries. This has led to an exchange of architectural ideas, materials, and labour, resulting in a more homogenous global style but also a push for renewed regionalism and contextual design. Globalisation is a broad concept concerning the diversity of regions, cultures, and actors and the diversity of analytical approaches (Nepravishta and Maliqari, 2023). Some architects have rejected globalisation, depending on vernacular design approaches. On the contrary, other architects have turned buildings into mirrors of globalisation, crossing values and cultural heritage of their nations. Another group of architects have reached a sort of balance (equilibrium) between authenticity and contemporality (Al-Sabbagh, 2021). This issue of globalisation has resulted in generating the architectural trends of critical regionalism, emphasising identity, neo-vernacular approach, design symbiosis, and adaptive reuse.

(II) Technological Advancement: Digitalisation has altered how buildings are designed and constructed. In the computer software realm, digital data is used to generate complex forms and optimise building performance based on specific parameters. This improves collaboration and efficiency. Examples of these technological advancements are generative design, parametricism, BIM, design through the metaverse and virtual environments. This issue has resulted in the rise of “Digital Tectonic Theory,” which explores the intersection of digital fabrication, design process, and physical construction (Balinski and Januszkiewicz, 2016).

(III) New Materials: Advancements in material science have led to the use of smart, recycled, and low-carbon materials. These new materials, such as self-healing concrete, self-cleaning glass, and advanced composites, enable architects to create innovative structural and aesthetic solutions. This global issue has resulted in spreading the concept of Low Carbon Design, the urban approach of Low Carbon Cities, recycling/upcycling, and biodegradable materials.

(IV) Environmental Crisis: The urgent need to address climate change has become an essential driver of architectural solutions. Environmental issues represent an increasingly pressing threat, as seen by rising CO₂ emissions worldwide, which is contributing to global warming and raising Earth’s temperature (Fig. 2). Concurrently, the loss of natural resources exacerbates the complexity, which is amplified by the growing world population and its increased water demand. The global economic crisis, indicated in the chart of Fig. 3, adds to the difficulties and provides a complex environment in which architects work. The environmental crises have resulted in the emergence of the trend of eco-cities, which target rebuilding cities to be in balance with nature. Through the point of view of the author Richard Register, the eco-city trend should be applied by following ecological principles for the long-term sustainability, cultural vitality, and health of Earth’s biosphere (Register, 2006). This environmental issue has also resulted in the emergence of the concept of decarbonising the environment, reducing CO₂ emissions. Biophilic design is another trend that has emerged due to the environmental crisis. It integrates natural elements into architecture to improve human well-being and productivity, and to create more connection with nature (Terblanche and Khumalo, 2025).

(V) Sustainability and Resilience: Architects now concentrate on designing buildings with minimal environmental impact, using renewable energy sources, and creating structures that can withstand climatic conditions (Garcia and Vale, 2017). Climate change phenomena and natural hazards happened around the world―such as global warming, rise of sea-level, hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, desertification, and others―pushed architects to urgently prepare buildings with novel solutions, treatments, and strategies. Man-made wars have also affected architecture. According to these issues, architects have invented the concepts of resilience and adaptability.

(VI) Social and Cultural Shifts: Changing urbanisation, demography, and human behaviours have influenced the purpose and form of buildings. The phenomenon of urban sprawl, launching new technological fields, and claims of liberation movements have led to clear shifts in people’s culture and social values. Some architects, therefore, call for emphasising local identity. Others go on to apply the community-based participatory approaches for addressing the social, environmental, and cultural challenges of development (Gentry and Metz, 2013). This has resulted in the rise of inclusivity and accessibility as a holistic design concept that focuses on designing spaces that are accessible and welcoming to people of different backgrounds.

(VII) Mixed-Use Development: The blurring lines between residential, commercial, and public spaces was a reason for creating integrated urban environments. These mixed-use urban environments are currently designed by integrated approaches of sustainable urban development (Kumar and Kumar, 2025).

The seven mentioned global issues transcend beyond environmental concerns and include obstacles related to population increase, economic instability, and appropriate technology use. Thus, this study can be an essential response to these problems, seeking to provide a theoretical framework that enables architects to understand and negotiate the complex terrain of contemporary design trends (Friedman, 2021). These issues caused trends to overlap, and the picture became complex, controlled by the variables of the era.

1.2 Aim and objectives

This paper, therefore, aims to provide a thorough theorisation chart for the new architectural trends, generated and developed in the 21st century, from 2000 to 2025, to be a valuable document for the field of theory of architecture. To achieve this aim, this research will answer secondary aims (objectives), defining the main keywords, establishing a thorough theoretical framework that considers the intricacies of 21st-century issues and giving architects a well-organised manual for understanding and navigating contemporary design trends.

1.3 Research hypothesis

This paper hypothesises that architects can proactively develop creative and sustainable architectural solutions if they truly comprehend the 21st-century variables. This can be achieved through benefiting from the intended detailed theorisation chart that this paper produced (by the end). This chart theorises the contemporary architectural trends, raised in the last 25 years, and expected to remain for the coming years.

2 Literature review

As a theoretical overview, the paper presents definitions of the terms Architectural Trend, Contemporary Architectural Trend, and Theorisation of Trends to figure out what each term refers to, and then the paper will move to identify the most remarkable variables of the 21st century.

2.1 Definition of “architectural trend”

According to Adrian Goldin, the “Trend” is a preference or a current that tends toward a specific end and usually leaves its mark over a period of time and in a certain place. Originally, the word “Trend” meant the direction a river takes. Later, it was used to designate the course taken by events. The term itself lacks the necessary moral and ethical implications. To project a trend, a past trend must be considered; a past trend must have a certain duration (Avila-Calle, 2023). Similarly, the term “Style” is a norm that presents an order, a system, a method, which has materialised in an art form; it is the element from which archaeologists can access the logic of style. The style possesses its own syntax, and the object will be elaborated within the terms of a given composition (Córdoba, 2013). According to Marco Avila-Calle, the distinctive characteristics of trends and styles marked in history have been mixed, creating an eclectic architecture. The function has gone to the background, the form prevails over the structural and functional, spaces were conceived in places that do not correspond, without considering the context in which they are located (Avila-Calle, 2023). Architecturally, the phrase “Architectural Trend” or “Architectural Style” describes a dominant orientation or inclination in building design and construction that reflects changing technology breakthroughs, values, and architectural community preferences. According to Omaha Heritage Preservation, architectural trends and styles refer to the distinctive characteristics and elements that define the design and structure of buildings. These styles have evolved, influenced by cultural, historical, technological, and social factors (Omaha, 2024) Architectural trends and styles evolve, complementing the development of social, economic, and religious aspects of society. Architectural styles and history are usually identified and studied by architecture historians based on buildings’ structure, material, decorations, form of architectural elements, as well as the contexts. The long-time span and wide geographical distribution of global architectural styles and histories make it difficult to articulate the evolution of styles and genres on a large scale (Sun et al., 2022). Based on the previous thoughts, Architectural Trend can be defined as a common characteristic, style, or method in the design and construction of buildings that becomes popular over a period of time, reflecting societal needs, technological advancements, and cultural shifts.

2.2 Definition of “contemporary architectural trends”

Contemporary architecture, spanning from the late 20th century to the present day, is a blend of trends and styles influenced by technological advancements, societal changes, and environmental concerns. Large volumes, open floor plans, new materials and methods, sustainable construction practices, asymmetrical or non-linear shapes, an emphasis on nature and the environment, and minimalist interior design are some of its highlights. By addressing the opportunities and problems of the 21st century, this vibrant and inventive sector is reshaping the built environment (Valdes, 2020). Frank Gehry, Jean Nouvel, Tadao Ando, Shigeru Ban, Santiago Calatrava, and Zaha Hadid are a few well-known architects whose work can be described as contemporary architecture. Maddison Cunningham views that the contemporary trends embrace diversity, drawing inspiration from global cultures while embracing local contexts and traditions. Beyond aesthetics, contemporary architecture aims to enhance living experiences and promote well-being. It continues to evolve, shaping environments that are both dynamic and harmonious with nature. Architects currently prioritise efficiency and environmental responsibility, integrating green design principles like energy efficiency and natural light optimisation (Cunningham, 2025). In the 21st century, the contemporary architectural trends have been influenced by the environmental factors, energy efficiency demand and the ecological approaches (Sugár et al., 2018). Sustainability has become an essential strategy in the design of buildings (Mba et al., 2024). Besides, digitalisation has been an inevitable aid in design. The Contemporary Architectural Trends, therefore, can be addressed as the new characteristics, styles, or approaches that have emerged in the 21st century according to the new variables of climate change, energy efficiency, digitalisation, and artificial intelligence-aided design. These trends are a translation of the architecture in the context of change.

2.3 Definition of “Theorisation of Trends”

Dictionaries define the term “Theorisation” as the act of constructing a theory. Other references indicate that this term is defined as the process of settling/rooting/designating certain theories on a group of trends or ideas. In his book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, Robert Venturi referred to the importance of theorising the trends of architecture, especially after the rise of postmodern trends against the purism of modernism trends. He indicated that a gentle manifesto should be created for the non-straightforward (unconventional) architecture (Venturi et al., 1977). Both Charles Jencks and Karl Kropf explored the possibilities of theorising the trends of 20th-century architecture. In the last four decades of the 20th century, there was an outburst of theories that identified diverse languages, trends, and styles of architecture. With the many “crises in architecture” and the urban and ecological problems, Modernism has been criticised, questioned, and revivified. The result has been a cascade of new theories, trends, and justifications. This chaos of trends needed a theorisation process organising, handling, and correctly characterising the architectural trends (Jencks and Kropf, 1997). Jencks defines “Theory” as a kind of congealed manifesto, its violence subtracted to become acceptable in the groves of academe. Theories such as Form follows Function―for Louis Sullivan, Form follows Meaning―for Henri Lefebvre, Double-Code―for Charles Jencks, Complexity and Contradiction―for Robert Venturi, The Folding Theory―for Gilles Deleuze, Deconstructing Text―for Jaque Derrida, and others have shaped the architectural trends in the 20th century. The architecture historians Dennis Sharp, James Steele, Charles Jencks, and Kenneth Frampton produced serious attempts at theorising the architectural trends from different perspectives. Theorisation of Trends, therefore, means rooting, classifying, and recognising the theories and models that explain and predict changes of movements in observed data over time. Theorisation of Contemporary Trends, then, refers to documenting the significant architectural trends, interpreting their design theories, elaborating their characteristics, and identifying their architects.

2.4 The early attempts to theorise the “contemporary architectural trends”

The “evolutionary tree” theory was first presented in Charles Jencks’ 2002 book―The New Paradigm in Architecture: The Language of Postmodernism as a means of explaining the emergence of architectural trends in the 20th century. Roots of modernism, which encompassed ornamentation, minimalism, and functionalism, are represented by the tree (Fig. 4). From the trunk, postmodernism sprang, embracing symbolism, historical allusions, and cultural diversity. Jencks highlighted how architectural progress is dynamic, combining a variety of influences with the ongoing development of architectural languages. The tree also represented plurality and variation in modern architecture, opposing the idea of a single line of development (Jencks, 2002).

2.5 The new variables of the 21st century and architectural responses

According to Soledad Sambiasi, there are stimuli making changes in architecture: climate change, accelerating technology, urban density, change of human behaviours, and development of construction materials (Sambiasi, 2019). The 21st century’s new variables have profoundly affected many facets of society and are essential to comprehending the requirements of the new era. The research hypothesises six variables that reshaped the architectural thought, shown in Fig. 5.

The paper explains each variable, from the diagram in Fig. 5, and unveils its architectural response as follows:

2.5.1 Variable 1: De-carbonising environment

Throughout the last decades, there have been various environmental issues that reflect negatively on public health and human well-being. According to the Wisconsin Department of Health Services, one of the most dangerous effects on people’s health is the emission of Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), which spreads due to factories attaching urban tissues, car exhaust, building fuel combustion, and waste from the construction process. Exposure to CO₂ can produce a variety of health effects, both psychologically and physiologically. According to Yaolin Lin, Honghong Cheng, Wei Yang, and Chun-Qing Li, architects have endeavoured to create carbon-neutral buildings. They are currently directing their effort to make buildings ready for the shift to a low-Carbon energy system and preparing their users to be carbon-neutral. Between 2020 and 2050, energy consumption is expected to rise by 83% owing to population expansion and 79% due to climate change if significant steps are not implemented to encourage decarbonisation and enhance energy efficiency (Lin et al., 2025). Governments are facing the challenge to change their physical environments to renewable energy environments. The Cooperative Research Centre for Low Carbon Living, an initiative of the Australian Government’s Department of Industry, Science, and Technology, conducted several research projects from 2012 to 2019 that produced new knowledge and innovations on how to change to a decarbonising environment (Newton et al., 2019). In the UK, there are initiatives to reduce operational emissions through low-carbon technologies. Research has shown that lowering energy consumption in buildings through energy-efficient measures like insulation, double glazing, retrofitting, energy-efficient appliances, behaviour modification, and moving away from fossil fuel-based heating systems can minimise operational emissions (Debnath et al., 2021). Currently, the agenda for creating the concept of “Low Carbon City” is ambitious and calls for swift social change (Dhakal and Ruth, 2017). According to the planner Michael Eliason, eco-districts must include a lot of social housing for a diverse range of residents, invest in open space, build climate-adaptable infrastructure, and provide car-free or car-light areas to create a liveable area with a low carbon footprint (Eliason, 2024). Other studies consider key paradigms for applying Low Carbon-oriented design: Design with Nature, Design with Human, Design with Clean Energy, and Design with Climate. Through these paradigms, creating energy-efficient, environmentally harmonious buildings and cities became possible (Fu et al., 2025). Muyiwa Oki, the previous president of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), made two important statements:

“We need to de-Carbonise the Environment.”

“Architects can play a ‘key role’ in reducing carbon emissions following the conclusion of COP 28” (Pitcher, 2023).

This change has become necessary. Directing towards sustainability, low-Carbon materials, and green design have become the endeavours of architects to provide better human health in buildings and urban areas (Singh et al., 2023). Reducing the rates of CO₂ emission and creating eco-friendly built environments have become an urgent need. Thus, since 1990, the trends that emerged as architectural responses to this variable have included:

● Cradle to Cradle Philosophy

● Energy saving techniques

● Eco-Design

● Interactive Façades

● Green Design (Applying LEED/BREEAM)

● Passive design

● Sustainable architecture - (Energy efficiency, responsible use of materials, natural ventilation, low-Carbon materials, renewable energy, and natural resources)

● Passive solar heating

● Closed loop design

● Biophilic design

● Net-Zero energy buildings

● Vertical forests

● Recycling and upcycling

● Biodegradable materials

● Solar façades

● Low-carbon city

● Eco-systems

● Commitment to RIBA Sustainable Outcomes Guide and UIA Architecture Guide to the UN 17 Sustainable Development Goals

2.5.2 Variable 2: Revival of the Twentieth Century Styles

For varied reasons, some architectural trends in the 20th century gradually vanished. In the new millennium, some critics and architects have a point of view that these trends offered a unique dimension of aesthetics and could be revived to solve certain issues. In art, linguistics, literature, and architecture, some styles were revived to solve problems and cover gaps, occurred in the 21st century. For example, “brutalism” in language has been revived to face the neoliberal narrative movements (Prakash, 2025). Analogically, the concept of brutalism in architecture has been revived to re-explore the aesthetic dimension of reinforced concrete against the wild onslaught of technological trends. Another example, the resurrection of structural tendency, is observable since the 1990s. While structuralism in the 1970s faced complexity barriers, there is evidence now that the return of structural thinking is linked to information technology, which has created new avenues for addressing complexity. There is a discussion of neo-structuralism in the realm of digital architecture (Avermaete, 2011). Architects who advocate the act of revival try to re-explore the power of these styles. Thus, since 2000, the architectural trends that emerged as responses to this variable have included:

● Neo-Minimalism

● Neo-Deconstructivism

● Dystopian Fragmentation

● Neo-Brutalism

● Eco-Brutalism

● Neo-Expressionism

● Neo-Harmony with Nature

● Bio-Mimicry Design

● Neo-Revivalism

● Neo-Structuralism

● Advanced Building Technology

● Neo-Regionalism (Critical Regionalism + Trans-culture)

● Modular Construction

● Neo-Futurism

● Neo-Metabolism

● Neo-Liberalism

● Archaeology of the Future

2.5.3 Variable 3: Emphasising Identity and Recalling Memory

Under the onslaught of globalisation and the intersection of Western and Eastern trends, the cultural identity of communities has gradually turned to be intangible. Some architects have decided to take responsibility to advocate the nations’ identity through reminding buildings’ users of their past, values, and culture. These architects use symbols, signs, and metaphors in their design language, driven by the historical, cultural, and social context. Thus, the immense impact of globalisation is the critical variable that these architects try to resist through recalling people’s memories and generating their sense of belonging. According to Qing Liu, studying diverse socio-political, cultural, and economic phenomena and connecting them to architecture is required. Liu (2025) views that examining architecture and phenomenology makes predictions about how architecture will develop in the future as an interdisciplinary field. It cites architecture’s critical engagement with socio-political issues. By projecting Liu’s point of view on the context of this variable, we can find that architects have to connect the phenomena happened in the past and are stuck in people’s collective memory, and their designs. Some architects in the 21st century think about identity as an accumulation of norms and feelings of belonging that support the survival of a community. Our world is changing too quickly due to globalisation, and some places are unable to adapt (Kotradyová and Ontkóc, 2022). As a response to this variable, the following architectural trends that have emerged and spread include:

● Philosophy of Symbiosis

● Adaptive Reuse (Adaptability, Maintaining Cultural Heritage, Coexistence between past and present)

● Retrofitting Architecture

● Metamorphic Architecture

● Metaphorical Architecture

● Contextual Architecture

● Equity and Inclusion

● Preserving Identity and Memory

● Architecture and Phenomenology

2.5.4 Variable 4: Space Invasion

Considering the struggle between countries over energy resources and violent conflicts between the superpowers, a large segment of humanity fears the outbreak of a nuclear, chemical, or biological war, which would wipe out humanity and cause severe damage to Earth’s infrastructure and buildings. The scientists of the USA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Russian Space Agency (Roscosmos), China National Space Administration (CNSA), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), United Arab Emirates Space Agency (UAESA) have begun to invade space and attempt to build self-sufficient colonies. These international agencies employ their architects to make experiments of simulation to build on the surface of the planets. Space invasion also aims to find new energy sources to help Earth continue to live. With technological development and advances in construction techniques such as 3D printing and robotics, it has become possible to build these colonies. Historically, the US President Ronald Reagan authorised NASA’s construction of a space station in 1984. A generation later, the “International Space Station” became a successful research facility orbiting the planet. Its launch was accompanied by political, diplomatic, financial, and technological threads. Design, construction, and in-orbit assembly of this station were complicated. The NASA astronaut Nicole Stott called this facility: A Home in Space (Nixon, 2017). In her book, Space Architecture: Buildings for the Outer Space, Emanuel Pimenta elaborates on methods to design buildings in outer space. She explains that building on Earth in extreme conditions could be a valid simulation of what can be built in outer space, by simulating similar conditions (Pimenta, 2013). According to Elif Keve, the need for innovative architectural solutions in extraterrestrial environments becomes increasingly critical. With an emphasis on structural integrity, resource use, environmental adaptation, and human considerations, studies must be directed to analyse the technological developments in orbital structures, lunar bases, and Martian settlements. To overcome limitations of microgravity, extremely hot temperatures, and cosmic radiation, architecture has to direct towards autonomous buildings, in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU), and adaptive design approaches. Building in the outer space requires combining knowledge from the fields of architecture, engineering, and space sciences (Keve, 2024). In this context, the architectural trends that respond to this variable can focus on:

● Earth Architecture

● Alien (Look-Like) Architecture

● Extraterrestrial Architecture

● Outer-Space Design

● Space Architecture

● Martian and Lunar Habitats (Moon Villages/Asteroid Mining Colonies)

2.5.5 Variable 5: Resilience with Climate Change and Natural Hazards

Climate resilience is the ability of a system to predict, be ready for, and withstand a climate hazard and its impacts. The greatest fear of people is the extreme natural hazards and the consequences of climate change. According to Kershaw, green and blue infrastructure in urban areas can resist through certain urban geometry, heat islands, and energy use (Kershaw, 2025).

Are architects ready to design buildings that withstand the expected natural hazards and climate change?

Climate change issues relate to many serious topics that people fear. One of the most frightening issues is rising sea levels, as it poses an existential threat to coastal cities. Global warming also poses a serious threat to many countries, especially those located geographically along solar orbits. Some European countries have recently experienced unprecedented temperature increases. Another natural threat is earthquakes. Sudden cracks in the Earth’s crust also pose a danger because they result in earthquakes and aftershocks that can destroy buildings, damage infrastructure, and cause loss of life. The most recent earthquakes were in Turkey, February 6, 2023, and in Thailand, March 28, 2025. Wildfires are another catastrophic hazard threatening the wildlife (Paul, 2020). Without a doubt, these forms of climate change phenomena and natural hazards require new trends of architecture, characterised by resilience, adaptability, protection, and new structural considerations. Many research projects have been conducted targeting the mitigation of climate change, such as studying the impact of climate change and anthropogenic pressure on groundwater resources in arid environments (Guermazi et al., 2018) and the initiatives of mitigating climate change in 2014 in the UK (Edenhofer et al., 2015). To adapt to climate change, outside-the-box ideas have emerged, such as “The Green Float”, a floating city with negative carbon emissions. “Subbiosfera”, an underwater city guarantees ecological self-sufficiency. These initiatives provide new living spaces that are consistent with sustainability principles (Nikolic et al., 2024). Within these initiatives, innovative building techniques and materials are pioneered by disaster-resilient architecture to mitigate the effects of natural hazards on built environments (Anchliya, 2024). Lately, in many countries, people have faced economic downturns. As a response to this variable, architects are focusing on creating affordable and environmentally friendly structures. The low currency in Africa and countries in the Middle East has led to inflationary pressures and a growth slowdown. Architects in these regions have to design cost-effective and sustainable buildings to withstand these economic challenges. The need for affordable housing has become a crucial consideration in contemporary architectural practice (Mazzetto et al., 2024). Human-caused conflicts have a profound effect on architecture. For example, the urban areas and infrastructure were damaged in Ukraine, which requires durable constructions and post-war restoration. More than two-thirds of the buildings in Gaza were destroyed, underscoring the necessity of flexible construction methods and post-war rehabilitation. In response to the task of reconstructing urban areas and infrastructure, architects are increasingly creating structures that support social equity, inclusion, and well-being (Ramadan and Farge, 2025). The architectural responses to these variables may include:

● Subterranean Architecture

● Floating Structures

● Fire-Resistant Urban Fabrics

● Carbon Sequestration (Biodiversity Support)

● Resisting Hazards (Examples: Vibration Structure System/Portable Buildings)

● Bio-Climatic Design

● Resilient Architecture

● Architecture of Adaptability

● Post-COVID-19 Architectural Needs (Work and Live in the same place/Isolation Rooms/Clean Rooms)

● Design in the Extreme Conditions

● Post-War Trends (Fast Sheltering, Tiny Homes, Affordability)

● Ocean Architecture

2.5.6 Variable 6: Effect of Digitalisation

Since the advent of the digital revolution in the 1980s, there has been remarkable progress in programming, followed by the invention of new software programs and tools, which have radically changed the concepts of architectural formation. Within the booming of Big Data and Internet of Things (IoT), architectural design has turned to be a digital process, controlled by information (algorithms). According to the cyberspace architect Marcos Novak, everything melts into information. Digitalisation has been contemporaneous with the development of the Internet and virtual reality technologies, leading to the theorisation of cyberspace. Since 2010, the Fourth Industrial Revolution has declared that it is the era of the digitally connected world. Machine learning and computer-aided design tools and programs enabled architects to enhance drawing and visualisation, improve accuracy, facilitate efficient design changes, and increase collaboration. According to Peter Szalapaj, every day there are advancements in the computer modelling of design form which have a direct impact of architectural practice (Szalapaj, 2019). Parametric design is being used to achieve optimum efficiency and ease the design process, giving architects the opportunity to create intriguing future architecture (Dolgikh, 2024). On the other hand, industry professionals have noticed the importance of 3D printing because of its effective conversion of virtual conceptions into prototype pieces through the layering of material. It is characterised by speed, direct data conversion, complicated geometry management, high precision, cost effectiveness, and environmental benefits (Yin et al., 2018). Parametricism, digital design and fabrication, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), robotics, and 3D printing opened new horizons of formation, design possibilities, and testing new materials. These tools allow clients to make simulation experiences in the virtual environments, participate in making design decisions. When the Fifth Industrial Revolution began to emerge in 2020, artificial intelligence (AI) became a disruptive force impacting construction methods, building performance assessments, and design processes. It has been used to assess environmental data, enhance building designs, and increase construction process efficiency. This technology is changing the way that architects approach their work and is predicted to have a significant influence on the built environment going forward (Cucuzzella et al., 2023). In her article “Towards a post-human era? Digital Architects and the Future of Mankind”, Marion Roussel emphasises that:

“We can no longer ask ‘what is man?’ without examining what we think man will become.”

Architects are investigating human needs considering this digital age. The Fifth Industrial Revolution explores new relations between humans and machines. The metaverse realm has created deeper interactive experiences and has opened new cyberspaces, activated with a more thrilling participatory approach. Based on the interpretation of Aslı Taş and Güneş Mutlu Avinç, the Metaverse can be considered as an architectural social media platform. Architects may work together more efficiently on virtual projects when they use 3D blueprints created in the Metaverse. They can engage with clients and get feedback while they tour in-buildings they design in the Metaverse (Taş and Avinç, 2024). To align with these new technological variables, the architectural responses included the rise of:

● Cyberspace Architecture

● Hypersurface Architecture

● Hybrid Architecture

● Blobitecture and Biomorphic Design

● Computational Design

● Immersive Technologies

● Digital Design and Fabrication

● Parametric Design

● Parametricism and Natural Materials

● Architecture of Smart Buildings

● Artificial Intelligence Aided Design Trend

● Metaverse Architecture

● New Urban Technologies (15 Minute Cities/AI Driven Urbanism/Responsive Cities)

● Prefabricated and 3D Printed Cities

● Neuro-Architecture and Human Centric Design

These variables demonstrated how dynamic and interrelated contemporary architectural practice can be, emphasising how architects in the 21st century must adapt to a wide variety of social, economic, and technological factors.

2.6 Previous readings

In the following paragraphs, the paper highlights the significant previous references that emphasised the emergence of new trends in architecture and the emergence of new variables since the beginning of the new millennium. These paragraphs present the title of the publication, identify its author/s, determine the journal, and the date of publishing, then they demonstrate what the author/s concluded to adapt to the new variables of the 21st century. These publications are chronologically presented from oldest to newest.

In the context of wars and man-made hazards, several papers were published investigating the position of the post-war architecture. A paper entitled “War against architecture, identity and collective memory,” 2015, discusses the phenomenon of violence towards architecture and its impact on the collective memory of people. The author Aida Hoteit emphasises the significant role of identity and recalling memory in the process of reconstruction in the post-war context. This paper proposes reaching a balance between preservation of memory and the future needs (Hoteit, 2022). The current study agrees with Hoteit’s vision that architects should create a dialogue with their buildings’ users, recalling their memories, not only as attempts of preservation in post-war cities, but also as an initiative to face the waves of globalisation. This aligns with variable 3, Emphasising Identity and Recalling Memory.

In the paper entitled “On conservation issues of contemporary architecture: The technical design development and the ageing process of the Jubilee Church in Rome by Richard Meier,” published in Frontiers of Architectural Research (2018), the author Luciano Cardellicchio analysed the design and construction of this church. Cardellicchio explains that the design was not prepared enough to withstand the heavy rain, especially the acid rain, due to the use of improper materials, which made the building’s decay worse (Cardellicchio, 2018). The critical analysis of this building reveals several technical procedures, design decisions, and construction specifics that have contributed to the building’s deterioration. Cardellicchio’s paper indicates that some contemporary projects do not properly withstand the climatic effects, which refers to the inevitable need for a new trend of architecture that can be resilient within the context of climate change. The current study agrees with the position of Cardellicchio’s paper that there is a gap that must be covered. In the locations of expected climate change, architects must follow specific trends to prepare buildings with solutions to align with variable 5, Resilience with Climate Change and Natural Hazards.

Another paper, entitled “Computational design in architecture: Defining parametric, generative, and algorithmic design,” published in Frontiers of Architectural Research (2020), the authors Inês Caetano, Luís Santos, and António Leitão elaborated on the role of computational design methods in architecture. According to them, these methods have enabled architects to enhance the design process. Computational design, parametricism, and digital fabrication have helped architects to design unconventional forms and complex solutions (Caetano et al., 2020). Before the advent of these technological trends, optimising form was difficult, calculating the environmental factors, and taking a longer time for design decisions. The current study agrees with the conclusion of the mentioned paper that digitalisation has a powerful impact on architecture and re-explores the relationship between humans and machines. This aligns with variable 6, Effect of Digitalisation.

The paper entitled “Off-Earth infrastructure assembly: A conceptual method for scaffoldless and mortarless component-based structures in static equilibrium,” published in the International Journal of Space Structures (2022), unveils new architectural methods of constructing infrastructure, objects, and buildings in outer space. Mariana Konstantatou and her co-authors developed component-based structures based on recyclable materials. They propose new systems of assembly and vernacular construction techniques, which maximise re-configuration and re-use of extraterrestrial architecture (Konstantatou et al., 2022). This paper tackles new systems and new methods of construction off-Earth. Some of these techniques can be executed on Earth, especially under extreme conditions. This aligns with the rise of variable 4, Space Invasion.

A paper entitled “Recent advancements and future trends in 3D concrete printing using waste materials”, published in Developments in the Built Environment Journal, 2023, discusses 3D printing technology as an innovative construction method, allowing the creation of intricate concrete structures. It highlights the potential of 3D printing in making faster construction processes (Tu et al., 2023). By optimising printing materials and integrating waste materials, the research aims to improve economic and environmental outcomes. This aligns with variable 1, De-Carbonising Environment (through using eco-friendly materials and sustainable building solutions) and variable 6, Effect of Digitalisation (through using the technology of 3D printing).

Another paper entitled “Theorising architectural research and practice in the metaverse: the meta-context of virtual community engagement Available to Purchase,” published in Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research (2025), is oriented towards the benefit of the virtual environment. According to the authors Claudia Bernasconi and Libby Balter Blume, virtual environments may provide opportunities for collaboration among architects and clients in a new context. This paper proposes theorising the architectural practices through metaverse platforms (Bernasconi and Blume, 2025). This paper indicates that the relationship between the architect, the client, and the building is changed. Clients now can have a greater participatory role in the design process in cooperation with architects through the metaverse and artificial intelligence, which facilitates diverse alternatives of solutions. This agrees with variable 6, Effect of Digitalisation, which opens new horizons of thought and supports a human-centred design approach.

For the specific needs of the 21st-century variables, some architects revive styles and trends from the 20th century. In the book chapter “From Rationalism to Brutalism: An Architectural Heritage to be Sustainability Transformed―Intervention Strategies,” published in the book “Multi-scale Perspectives on Building Heritage Conservation and Sustainable Cities,” 2025, the author Francesco Marino indicates that many architects around the world revive the Brutalism trend, driving their design languages from Le Corbusier, Denys Lasdun, Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Carlo Scarpa, and as Zaha Hadid and Tadao Ando continued to do in the buildings of Vitra Campus in Weil am Rhein at the South of Germany in 1990s. Reviving these old trends may achieve the poetics of materials, but that should be reinforced with economic feasibility, energy efficiency, and sustainability (Marino, 2025). The current study agrees with the line of this book chapter that the 20th-century architectural trends have not vanished, but some of them remain active and applicable to the present time. This aligns with variable 2, Revival of the 20th Century Styles.

Other publications have contributed to the development of nuanced theoretical frameworks for understanding and navigating the complexities of the 21st-century architectural practice by synthesising insights from previous studies on innovative design, sustainability, and contemporary trends.

“The Autopoiesis of Architecture: A New Framework for Architecture, Volume I,” a book authored by Patrik Schumacher, presents a theoretical framework that tackles the complexity of contemporary architectural practice. Schumacher examines the idea of autopoiesis, which is taken from biology, using a variety of philosophical, scientific, and architectural theories. He presents architecture as a self-generating and self-maintaining system. He challenges conventional ideas of design control by highlighting architecture’s status as a complex adaptive system that is always changing in response to outside inputs. He advocates the use of parametricism as a technique to use computational design to produce responsive solutions, empowering architects to meet the ever-changing issues of the 21st-century society (Schumacher, 2011).

Schumacher’s proposed solutions:

● Autopoiesis as a framework for comprehending architecture: as a self-generating system.

● Architecture is a complex adaptive system that can change and adapt to the environment, culture, and technology of the 21st century.

● Parametricism is promoted to interact with the current society’s dynamic nature. Architects may create creative solutions that address the intricacies of the 21st-century surroundings thanks to parametric design.

● Computational tools aid in the creation of intricate arrangements and architectural forms.

● Sustainable and responsive architecture implementation can be achieved through dynamic design processes.

List of variables addressed in Schumacher’s book:

● Technological Progress

● Cultural Interactions

● Environmental Issues

● Forces of Economy

● Social Shifts

● Globalisation

● Digitisation

● Changes in Climate

● Changes in Demographics

● Lack of Resources

● Loss of Biodiversity

● Efficiency in Energy Use

● Information Availability

● Health and Welfare Mobility and Interconnectivity

● Frameworks for Regulation of Urban Development

By viewing the world through this lens, Schumacher highlights how wider socio-cultural, economic, and environmental concerns are linked to architectural processes.

Another important reference guide is “The RIBA New Educational Themes and Values.” In 2021, Alan Jones―the former president of RIBA―launched the initiative “The Way Ahead”, giving priorities to new themes and values that should be followed by architects, scholars, and architecture students (Johns, 2021). The educational theme no. 2 (E2) “Ethical and Professional Practice” highlights the responsibility of architects to respect moral standards and ethical principles at all phases of the building process. This includes dealing with customers, co-workers, and the public in addition to taking cultural and environmental factors into account while making design choices. Architects can link their design strategies with national and global climate targets and contribute to sustainable and responsible architectural solutions by recognising the nature of professionalism and ethical commitments towards clients, users, and wider society.

Based on the previous literature review, the paper can suggest a set of parameters to be used to analyse the following case studies. Table 1 presents the suggested parameters as follows.

3 Methodology

Through a qualitative approach of methodology of analysis and interpretations, the paper follows inductive, analytical, comparative analytical, and deductive methods to be the main techniques used in architectural projects’ analysis. These techniques make it easier to analyse architectural features in detail in relation to the expected variables. To tackle the problems of the 21st century, it is important to compare the architectural approaches. A greater comprehension of the relevance of architectural designs within current discourse, in respect to the variables, can be gained through this comprehensive analysis. These case studies are:

● Moon Village Habitat (2012)

● Stone Garden, Beirut, Lebanon - 2020

● The Holy Redeemer Church, Tenerife, Spain (2022)

● Sluishuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (2022)

● Valley, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (2023)

● Anthony Timberland Centre for Design & Innovation, Fay Jones School of Architecture & Design, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA (2024)

Criteria of Selection: These six case studies were chosen based on the following criteria:

a. Temporal criterion: The chosen projects are recent. Their design ideas were generated in the 21st century. Most of these projects were opened within the last two decades.

b. Positive criticism criterion: These projects received positive criticism from critics, users, and some of them received international awards.

c. Promising resilience criterion: Through inductive analyses, it has been found that these projects are aligned and resilient with the 21st-century variables.

d. Covering diverse contemporary architectural trends that reflect the 21st-century variables.

Method of Analysis: For each project, the parameters―indicated in Table 1―will be analysed. This analysis will end by concluding the contemporary architectural trend and the treatments used to align and to be resilient with the 21st-century variables, as shown in Table 2.

These case-studies will be presented according to the chronological order (from oldest to newest) as follows.

3.1 Analysing case-study 1: Moon Village Habitat - 2012)

3.1.1 Project ID card

- Architect: Foster + Partners/The team consisted of: Stefan Behling, Irene Gallou, and Marc Guberman

- Clint: European Space Agency (ESA)

- Location: Envisioned to be initiated on the Moon’s Southern Pole

- Project Typology: Habitat

- Building Materials: Lunar soil (Regolith)

- Budget: Confidential Information

3.1.2 Project aim

This simulation project aims to build a lunar base housing four people, as a prototype for initiating a larger habitation on the moon in the near future. This structure is expected to function as a high-tech lunar igloo. The goal is to emphasise the need for adaptive space environments, withstanding the extreme climate conditions. Figure 6 shows the visionary plan, designed by Foster and Partners.

3.1.3 Context

Foster + Partners is part of a consortium set up by ESA to explore the possibilities of 3D printing to construct lunar habitations. Addressing the challenges of transporting materials to the moon, the study is investigating the use of lunar soil, known as Regolith, as a building material. The proposed location is the rim of Shackleton Crater at the lunar South Pole, a region with near-constant sunlight, providing proper solar power. The context of the moon’s environment is full of extreme climate conditions, such as exposure to meteorites, gamma radiation, high temperature fluctuations, and anti-gravity. The simulation was tested in a vacuum chamber―as a controlled atmosphere laboratory―replicating lunar conditions, showcasing its commitment to lunar habitation (Quirk, 2013).

3.1.4 Expected 21st century variables

The race to space invasion and the advancements of digitisation.

3.1.5 Concept

The concept of this project is to create a robust―and at the same time resilient―structure that can depend on in-situ materials to provide a sustainable habitat withstanding the possible extreme conditions. The team envisioned that the base would first be unfolded from a tubular module, transported by a space rocket. An inflatable dome then extends from one end of this cylinder to provide a support structure for construction. Layers of the lunar Regolith are then built up over the dome by a robot-operated 3D printer to create a protective shell. To ensure strength while keeping the amount of binding “ink” to a minimum, the shell is made up of a hollow-closed cellular structure like foam. The team designed the geometry of the structure to be modular circles (as spaces for the four residents). The 3D printing technology can create structures that are close to natural biological systems (Punch, 2021). Lord Norman Foster says:

“As designers, we are used to designing for extreme climates on Earth and exploiting the environmental benefits of using local sustainable materials―our lunar habitation follows a similar logic; our research has already provided benefits to feed into more mainstream projects.”

3.1.6 Treatments

In their experiment, the team used technological tools of 3D printing and a robot to fabricate a simulation spherical structure. The proposed base would be constructed without direct human assistance. The idea of using the in-situ material of the moon’s soil in construction ensures sustainability and adaptability.

3.1.7 Conclusion of case-study 1

Table 3 indicates the architects’ treatments to align and be resilient with the 21st-century variables and concludes the contemporary architectural trend.

3.2 Analysing case-study 2: Stone Garden, Beirut, Lebanon - 2020

3.2.1 Project ID card

- Architect: Lina Ghotmeh

- Clint: RED Property Development

- Land-Owners: Fouad El-Khoury, Ilham El-Khoury, Marwan El-Khoury―The children of the renowned Lebanese architect Pierre El-Khoury

- Location: Beirut, Lebanon

- Project Typology: Mixed-use building, housing an art foundation on the first two floors and residential apartments distributed on the above floors

- Site Area: 405 m²

- Total Built-Area on all floors: 6413 m²

- Number of Floors: 13

- Height: 49.5 m

- Building Materials: The structure is made of reinforced concrete with a 35 cm-thick envelope. Elevations are cladded with a mixture of concrete, earth, bonding agents, and metal fibres, resulting in the earthy sandstone-like material.

3.2.2 Project aim

This project aims to represent the resilience and the history of Beirut, particularly its post-war resilience and the city’s connection to its past. Ghotmeh’s vision is to build a project that recalls the memory of the Lebanese people and emphasises the city’s identity. The design expressed her artistic way to make her own memories of the city come alive, and she decided to let everyone share these memories with grace.

3.2.3 Context

Geographically, the site owned by the children of Pirre El-Khoury is located on the North-Eastern side of Beirut, approaching the Mediterranean Sea. This site is an irregular 405 m² sloping parcel. It is surrounded by traditional buildings and a mile away from Beirut Port. The photographer Fouad El-Khoury―one of the heirs―decided to give Ghotmeh tolerance to show her craft on the family-owned site. The client desired to initiate an outstanding structure emphasising the identity of Beirut that rises from wars, stresses, and urban unrest (Atallah, 2020).

3.2.4 Expected 21st century variables

Emphasis on identity and recalling memory and effect of hazards.

3.2.5 Concept

The project is considered an emotional homecoming for the Lebanese architect Lina Ghotmeh, whose practice is based in Paris. The architect says:

“Stone Garden materialises, somehow, my experience of Beirut. This city that is in constant mishap and that, despite it all, gives an extraordinary creative energy.”

The architect spoke with Louisiana Channel: The intention was to design a structure that could be durable in a city that has been repeatedly rebuilt and buried under debris. Marc-Christoph Wagner conducted an interview with Ghotmeh at her Paris studio in November 2021. The Stone Garden, which was the first structure built in Ghotmeh’s homeland of Beirut and is well-known for her humanist approach to architecture, offers a very intimate connection. It is situated on the outskirts of the city centre and is a strong example of vernacular architecture, echoing the lives of the people living here. Ghotmeh was raised in an environment deeply influenced by a rich cultural heritage affected by the enduring repercussions of the Lebanese Civil War. She pursues materials and shapes that embody the rich history of the multicultural city, with the building’s narrative itself stemming from Fouad El-Khoury’s war photographs (Leete, 2022). A precedent that motivated the building to become a symbol of strength amidst devastation. Ghotmeh says:

“There were a lot of manifestations and critiques around the rehabilitation and the question of erasing the memory of the city. People had a very emotional relationship with the city centre, and it was completely transformed and cleaned up. So, the question of memory was very much present when I had to do this project.”

The concept of this project, accordingly, concentrates on recalling the memory of the Lebanese community amidst wars. Ruins, bullet holes in buildings, places of snipers’ apertures, and the historical layers of the city were the sources of Ghotmeh’s concept. She created a structure rising from the Earth’s layers, covered by a stone-like material. As shown in Fig. 7, the architect subtracted parts from the elevations as 120 cm modular square openings to remind people of the memories of war and the bombardment of buildings. These squares represent a metaphor for scars, wounds, bullets, and missiles. According to Ghotmeh’s vision, these openings were filled with green natural elements of shrubs and small trees to represent the bright future of Lebanon.

“The building started to talk about all these bulleted facades that were just eaten up by the war. And then thinking about how the openings maybe can be a place of life now, it can be a place where nature can grow. Where instead of being an opening that portrays these negative moments of conflict, they become places of life. A large opening becomes a place where a big garden can live, and nature can be a part of the architecture.”

Said by Lina Ghotmeh

Ghotmeh founded an interesting concept, “Archaeology of the Future.” She depends on tracing the past to extract innovative sources through in-depth historical research. Her choice of building morphology is driven by cities’ memories. In the “Stone Garden,” Ghotmeh applied this concept, tracing the past of Beirut and then created her own design language to be an inhabited sculpture that recites Beirut’s story. In her book “Windows of Light,” Ghotmeh interprets the sensitive representation of daylight in this building (Ghotmeh, 2025). In its interior spaces, she accessed limited daylight. She says:

“I drew that space like a womb. It is a rather small intimate space. The side walls are rounded, and the top light feels like a sculpted skylight.” (Block, 2020).

Structurally, the building is robust due to its well-distributed reinforced concrete cores and its thick envelope. Thus, it withstood the Beirut port explosion that happened on 4 August 2020, despite its proximity to the port. With only slight damage to its glass windows, the building showed resilience. It also burdened the earthquakes that crossed Lebanon in 2023 and 2024. In an interview conducted by Anmol Ahuja, Ghotmeh mentioned:

“It was as if both its conceptual narrative and the physical relation it establishes to its environment had met and became palpable at the time of the explosion, where the building acted almost like a bunker and looked immutable. The future had literally met the past at this moment. This felt mythical.” “We are in a seismic area. Beirut has been buried seven times, so it has to resist any earthquake, and that is why it also resisted the explosion in the port.”

Beirut is a seismic city and has been exposed to several crossing earthquakes throughout history, due to the geographic location of Lebanon on two earthquake faults (Yammouneh Fault and the Mount Lebanon Thrust Fault). Thus, Beirut is fragile to these unexpected changes. Few structures can withstand and be resilient to these changes. Stone Garden was one of the buildings that withstood these seismic motions (Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, 2022). Fabrizio Toppetti wrote a chapter entitled: Chapeau Lina Ghotmeh. He referred to the success of this work and how it has been covered by widely circulated magazines, even in Italy (Toppetti, 2021).

3.2.6 Treatments

To emphasise the city’s identity, Ghotmeh used the facade’s earthy, handcrafted material, which resembles sandstone as much like the layered limestone strata of Raouche Rocks (the natural landmark of Beirut). To recall the people’s memory and the images of Beirut’s damaged buildings, Ghotmeh followed the approach of design by subtraction. She used the symbolic design language by sculpting recesses in the main form to symbolise the memory of Beirut. To be resilient with natural hazards and human-caused disasters, the structure was designed to be robust, having a thick wall envelope and large cross-section columns.

3.2.7 Conclusion of case-study 2

Table 4 indicates the architect’s treatments to align and be resilient with the 21st-century variables and concludes the contemporary architectural trend.

3.3 Analysing case-study 3: The Holy Redeemer Church, Tenerife, Spain - 2022

3.3.1 Project ID card

- Architect: Fernando Menis (Menis Arquitectos)

- Clint: Parish of Las Chumberas

- Location: C. Volcan Estromboli, 3, 38,108 San Cristobal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain

- Project Typology: Religious Facility―A Church

- Built-Area: 1050 m²

- Building Materials: Reinforced concrete, local stone, and golden sheets

- Budget: 600.000 €

3.3.2 Project aim

The church was constructed to give identity to this peripheral area of Tenerife Island. The project is not only a worship place, but also a spot for gathering the Las Chumberas community. The complex includes a church, a community centre, and a public plaza. The architect’s vision was to create a catalyst for urban and social change amid a confused urban fabric (Álvarez, 2024).

3.3.3 Context

This church (Fig. 8) is located in an underprivileged (low-class) neighbourhood of Tenerife Island. The construction took years, over more than fifteen years. It has overlapped with the transformation process of the neighbourhood, which consists of 670 houses, dating back to the 1970s, to which were later added shopping centres and small-scale factories. This project has been an outcome of love and dedication for this neighbourhood of all those involved. It was funded by donations from parishioners, locals, and local businesses to be a symbol of love, loyalty, and belonging. Thus, this project is an example of collective action. It received Faith & Form International Award for Religious Art and Architecture, which has been held annually since 1978, honouring the world’s best in sacred architecture and liturgical art from all religions (Coulleri, 2022). For this church, the jury comments:

“This is an amazing work. It appears as if blocks of stone have been chiselled and hollowed out to create spiritual spaces in their use of light and texture. It creates intimacy and warmth. Structural components are expressive. There is particular attention on acoustics and daylighting”.

3.3.4 The expected 21st century variable

Revival of a 20th-century style (Architecture of Brutalism).

3.3.5 Concept

The architect inspired the design idea from the volcanic geology of Tenerife Island. Metaphorically, he designed the architectural composition of the church to give the sense of volcanic rocks and the glass slots to reflect the form of tectonic cracks. To emphasise the sense of rocks, Menis used the fair-faced concrete to express the true essence of harshness, bulkiness, and instability. The building is embedded in the ground and rises with its four massive volumes resembling large restless rocks. The rough texture of the exposed concrete strikes a sharp contrast with the conventional residential context where it goes up. The natural light coming from the narrow crevices represented the spirit of the Holy Redeemer, who blesses the worshippers. From another point of view, the daylight coming from these cracks creates an introspective atmosphere that enhances the Christian sacraments. Daylight accesses through the cuts to shape a free-flowing and introverted void and to play an essential role in mass by stressing each of the Christian sacraments. At sunrise, the light accesses through the cross to fill the space behind the altar to symbolise the entrance to the cave in which Christ was buried and illuminating the baptismal font―the first light of a Christian. The altar, the confirmation, and the communion receive light at noon through the skylight. Later, light falls on the confessional. Skylights achieve the same effect on unction, matrimony, and priesthood (Coulleri, 2022).

3.3.6 Treatments

Reviving the Brutalism trend was the architect’s decision through selecting the concrete material to be explicit and textured. The concrete material, mixed with volcanic stone, provides a robust and sustainable structure. The choice of local materials and sustainable construction techniques reflects the use of nearby collaborations with local businesses (Álvarez, 2024).

3.3.7 Conclusion of case-study 3

Table 5 indicates the architect’s treatments to align and be resilient with the 21st-century variables and concludes the contemporary architectural trend.

3.4 Analysing case-study 4: Sluishuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands - 2022

3.4.1 Project ID card

- Architect: Barcode Architects and Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG)

- Clint: VORM, BESIX Real Estate Development and BESIX Nederland

- Location: IJburg Suburb, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

- Project Typology: A Housing project including 442 apartments as a mix of owner-occupied and rental units

- Built Area: 49,000 m²

- Budget: Not clear, but the Real Estate developers offer the single flat up to €1.4 million (targeting a small group of residents). The sale of berths starts at €272.495. The range of rent is from €1000 to €2200 per month

3.4.2 Project aim

This project (Fig. 9) aims to provide a sustainable and energy-efficient building having experience for a small target group of residents, who seek to live an elegant life of IJburg, Amsterdam waterfront (Mapei, 2024). This housing project received two awards: Architectenweb Award for the residential building of the year 2022 and Property Awards in London. One of the project’s architects says:

“Our Sluishuis is conceived as a city block of downtown Amsterdam floating in the IJ Lake, complete with all aspects of city life. Towards the city, the courtyard building kneels to invite visitors to climb its roof and enjoy the panoramic view of the new neighbourhoods on the IJ. Toward the water, the building rises from the river, opening a gigantic gate for ships to enter and dock in the port/yard. A building inside the port, with a port inside the building.”

Bjarke Ingels, Founding Partner, BIG

3.4.3 Context

Through analysing the site context, the project is located in the residential neighbourhood “IJburg,” at the eastern side of Amsterdam. IJburg is a group of islands situated in Lake “IJ” and is connected by bridges to each other. It is known for its waterfront residences and a mix of housing, commercial, and entertainment spaces. It targets a high quality of life with plenty of green spaces, water sports, and outdoor activities, making it an attractive place for families and professionals. Contextually, Sluishuis responds specifically to its special location in the water. The story of Sluishuis began in 2016. To design this project, the real estate developers VORM and BESIX RED collaborated with architects Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG) from Denmark and the Dutch firm Barcode Architects. The municipality of Amsterdam was impressed by the design and declared the collaboration the winning tender (Fleur, 2024).

3.4.4 Expected 21st century variables

De-Carbonising environment approaches and the effect of digitalisation (the potential of parametricism).

3.4.5 Concept

The word “Sluishuis” translated to Lockside House, or “floodgate house” in Dutch. This iconic project stands out for its irregular volume. Geometrically, the building is designed as a block with 52 m height. The architects subtracted a triangular shape, shown in Fig. 10, to allow boats’ sailors entering the inner courtyard and interacting with the building’s residents. The Sluishuis has a sloping design. A staircase has been built into it, which is partially accessible to the public. From the roof, people can enjoy views of Amsterdam and IJ Lake. The building is created for water lovers. A spacious jetty wraps around it, inviting residents and visitors to walk along the water while providing docking space for boats and houseboats. The Sluishuis opens toward the waterfront, allowing direct access to the inner harbour by boat (Bosboom, 2022). The volume is elevated on one side to allow the water into the courtyard and stepped down on the other side to make an inviting gesture towards IJburg with friendly green terraces. All apartments are accessible via the central courtyard. Each home has optimal views and daylight due to the double-cut volume. Sluishuis has a diversity of housing categories, such as compact studios, duplex penthouses, and proper apartments for families. These residential units are distributed over the various levels of the block.

“The world-famous urban environment of Amsterdam was created by the fusion of water and city. The new Sluishuis is born of the same DNA, merging water and perimeter block and expanding the possibilities for urban lifeforms around the IJ.”

Andreas Klok Pedersen, Partner, BIG

Beyond its form originality, the design fosters connections not only among the building’s residents but also with people from across Amsterdam, who are welcome to enjoy both the building and its surrounding spaces. Barcode Architects and BIG applied the approaches of decarbonising the environment. They also used parametric design software to help them in distributing the apartments’ balconies as cantilevers, allowing residents to enjoy the surrounding view.

3.4.6 Treatments

To achieve the concept of decarbonising the environment, the architects have applied the following treatments:

● Sustainability, energy efficiency, and durability: In this environmentally friendly structure, the architects used triple glazing, good insulation techniques, and heat recovery from shower and ventilation systems, which have been combined to lower the building’s heating needs. Heat pumps are used for both water heating and cooling. Approximately 2200 m³ of solar panels provide all the building’s energy needs for lighting, ventilation, heat pumps, and heating. Sluishuis generates more power than it consumes due to these solar panels, the heat pump system, and excellent insulation. As a result, the Energy Performance Coefficient (EPC) is -0.01. Other environmental considerations were also considered during construction, with many recycled and reusable components used. Along with these technical details, the building’s development emphasises the green areas and water collection (Hilal et al., 2025).

● Materiality: The architects target creating a connection between the building and its surroundings. Natural materials have been selected; thus, the building may have a rich and natural appearance over the years. The untreated aluminium of the façade reflects the water and gives the volume a different appearance at any time of day. In contrast, the stepped roof terraces (Fig. 11) and the jetty promenade are made of wood, which gives a tactile appearance.

● Interaction with natural elements: The architects solved the design of the apartments, allowing an abundance of natural sunlight to come in. They designed an inner courtyard, which supports good fresh-air ventilation. A group of plants and trees were planted on the stepped roof. Besides, the design itself is created to be in a dialogue with water. These natural elements emphasise the concept of decarbonising the environment (Stocker, 2023).

3.4.7 Conclusion of case-study 4

Table 6 indicates the architect’s treatments to align and be resilient with the 21st-century variables and concludes the contemporary architectural trend.

3.5 Analysing case-study 5: Valley, Amsterdam, The Netherlands - 2022

3.5.1 Project ID card

- Architect: Winy Maas & Piet Oudolf (MVRDV Architecture Office)

- Clint: OVG Real Estate-Edge Technologies, Amsterdam/NL

- Building Owner: RJB Group of Companies, Amsterdam/NL

- Location: 301 Beethoven-Street, Zuidas, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

- Project Typology: Mixed-Use Building (Housing, Offices, Retail, and Cultural Spaces)

- Total Built-Area of all the floors: 75,000 m²

- Height of the three towers: 67 m, 81 m, and 100 m

- Number of floors: 27

- Building Materials: Reinforced concrete, steel, natural stone, glass, and recycled aluminium

- Budget: Approximately €200 million

3.5.2 Project aim

This project―shown in Fig. 12 aims to provide a mixed-use development re-introducing the human scale and greenery in the dense Zuidas business district (at the south of Amsterdam). It consists of three stacked high-rise towers gathering different activities (two hundred apartments, offices, shops, restaurants, and cultural zones). At the heart of the structure lies a publicly accessible “valley,” connecting the towers and offering layered public and semi-public spaces that foster cultural interaction. The volumes are positioned on top of and next to each other in an irregular pattern; they are twisted in different directions, overlap one another and project outwards, creating a landscape-like arrangement of balconies and terraces (Sigmund, 2023). The architect’s intention is to create a new identity of spatial complexity, ecological integration, and interaction with the urban surroundings. Directly after its inauguration, this project received the best skyscraper in the world, as given by the 2021 Emporis Skyscraper Awards. In addition, it holds the sustainable BREEAM Excellent certification (Ikiz, 2022).

3.5.3 Context

In this area of the district in Amsterdam, there is a green landscape with sport playgrounds and a noticeable number of trees; therefore, the challenge was how to integrate the new structure with these special urban natural characteristics. “Valley” ensures compatibility with its surroundings through its stepped-back massing and varying tower heights, which reduce visual impact and preserve sightlines while enhancing spatial openness. This design approach helps the building to integrate seamlessly into the urban environment, maintaining accessibility and sunlight for public spaces. The integration of green terraces and vertical gardens softens the building’s angular forms, providing ecological benefits and fostering a connection to nature. These natural elements contribute to the building’s environmental sustainability, enhancing its compatibility with both the urban and natural contexts. On the social level, according to the economist Edward Glaeser, mixed-use developments like “valley” are essential for fostering social integration, as they allow individuals from various socioeconomic backgrounds to coexist in shared spaces, facilitating interactions that would otherwise be segregated in single-use areas. “Valley” includes communal terraces, office spaces, residential units, and retail areas, creating an environment conducive to cross-cultural exchange and social cohesion (Sigmund, 2023). Furthermore, the sociologist Saskia Sassen underscores that a global city such as Amsterdam attracts a wide range of populations, and mixed-use projects like “valley” offer a venue for both residents and international visitors to engage with one another.

3.5.4 Expected 21st century variables

De-Carbonising environment approaches and the effect of digitalisation (the potential of parametricism).

3.5.5 Concept

The concept behind “valley” integrates nature, community, and sustainable design principles. By reviewing the interpretation of MVRDV and based on a personal experience of the author during his visit to the building in April 2025, the concept concentrates on creating an architecturalised green valley in a new technological, compositional, and ecological costume. It draws a harmonious skyline integrating with the surrounding urban greenery. In people’s unconscious, the term “valley” refers to a low, flat area of land between hills or mountains. Therefore, readers and visitors may think they would visit a horizontal area on the ground floor surrounded by high, bulky buildings, but they will be surprised by finding this area lifted on high floors (4th and 5th floors). This lifted “Grotto” atrium is designed to be an accessible area for the public, residents, and visitors who are expected to share ideas, co-work, coexist, and interact at this meeting point. To apply this concept, MVRDV designed three interlocking towers. These towers are not equal in height, unconventional, and untraditional. The architect used the capabilities of parametric design and the software programs to create a fragmented composition of terraced floors. Choosing glass, stone cladding, recycled aluminium (for windows’ frames), and natural green elements to be the elevations’ materials was smart to create contrast and to emphasise a decarbonising environment. The project employs a reinforced concrete frame and a combination of steel and glass to support its dynamic form, providing both stability and flexibility. The design composition would not have been ever generated before using the advanced software programs and parametric design. The irregular geometry, particularly the terraced volumes, necessitated innovative design solutions, including the use of computational design tools like Rhino and Grasshopper, which facilitate precise modelling (MVRDV, 2021). The façades feature over 40,000 custom-cut natural stone tiles, arranged in a pattern that enhances the building’s organic aesthetics (MVRDV, 2021). Metaphorically, the stone mountains that embrace a lifted forum in their heart welcome the coming people from all directions.

“How do you make an office district liveable? What should the homes be like? What else is needed? Those were the questions we started with when we designed Valley. Instead of a one-note business centre, this site along Beethoven Street in Amsterdam is now a symphony of life — people working, yes, but also barbecuing on their terraces, visitors relaxing in the valley, shopping in the grotto, eating dinner by the street, and even the window cleaners and the gardeners scaling the heights above. Valley is a first step towards transforming this part of Amsterdam into a greener, denser, and more human city.”

Said by Winy Maas, Founding Partner, MVRDV (ArchEyes, 2023)

3.5.6 Treatments

To align with the 21st-century variables, MVRDV depended on three types of treatments as follows:

● Ecological Treatment: The building system supports the integration of extensive green spaces, with over 13,500 plants and trees incorporated into the terraces, providing environmental and aesthetic benefits. Figure 13 shows a zoom-in photo for one of the plants, provided on a terrace (Ikiz, 2022).

● Sustainable Treatment: The combination of materials and design strategies underscores the project’s commitment to sustainability and environmental integration. The use of natural stone cladding, alongside the structural support for green roofs and terraces, is a clear example of how “valley” blends cutting-edge technology with sustainable principles, contributing to the building’s visual appeal and its environmental performance. Recycling is one of the sustainable approaches used in the execution strategy, such as using recycled aluminium in the window frames. An environmental study was conducted to ensure the access of daylight to every single apartment, even with the unconventional, fragmented form (MVRDV, 2021).

● Computational Treatment: In partnership with ARUP, MVRDV made serious efforts to design the computational model and algorithms needed to generate the single form of an apartment and then sculpted the composition of the building. Afterwards, they used parametric design to assess changing form and orientation of units according to solar directions, view, privacy, and relation with neighbours. The form came out as a unique combination of angular and dynamic volumes that create a fragmented, yet cohesive structure. “Valley” embraces irregularity and fragmentation, allowing for more complex, engaging spatial experiences both inside and outside the building (Lynch, 2017).

3.5.7 Conclusion of case-study 5

Table 7 indicates the architect’s treatments to align and be resilient with the 21st-century variables and concludes the contemporary architectural trend.

3.6 Analysing case-study 6: Anthony Timberland Centre for Design & Innovation, Fay Jones School of Architecture & Design, university of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA - 2024

3.6.1 Project ID card

- Architect: Grafton Architects (Yvonne Farrell and Shelley McNamara) with the collaboration of Modus Studio

- Clint: University of Arkansas

- Location: University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

- Project Typology: Educational and Vocational Facility

- Built-Area: Four-story building of 4162 m² and 1114.8 m² pedestrian plaza

- Building Materials: Wood

- Budget: $ 16 Million

3.6.2 Project aim

The Anthony Timberlands Centre (Fig. 14) focuses on the local Arkansas source of wood and timber. The centre aims to educate new practitioners and inspire the use of wood in construction, emphasising the prominence of Arkansas in the timber industry. It includes workshops, laboratories, studios, seminar and conference rooms, an auditorium, and a public exhibition. It received AIA National Honour Award in Design and the LEED Gold certification (AR-Editors, 2023).

3.6.3 Context

Climate Change, natural disasters, and technological advancements are the significant variables affecting the context. Arkansas is experiencing a rise in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, storms, and floods due to climate change. Transportation delays, property damage, and public safety hazards have resulted from these occurrences. Rising temperatures and extended heatwaves are harming agriculture, water supplies, and public health. The state’s vulnerability to tornadoes puts communities, infrastructure, and structures at risk, underscoring the necessity of ongoing adaptation and mitigation initiatives. Through reading the context, it was necessary to put resilience and sustainability as design priorities. According to Michelle Parks, the building features a fabrication shop as its largest and most active space. It encompasses a large central bay, with a metal workshop, seminar room, and small digital lab, as well as a dedicated space for a large CNC router. These spaces will be served by an overhead crane that runs on rails outside to move large equipment and assemblies in and out of the building (Parks, 2023).

3.6.4 Expected 21st century variables

Effect of decarbonising environment approaches, the dangers of climate change, and the impact of BIM as a technological tool.

3.6.5 Concept

By clearly presenting a vision for the school’s future and the form and character of the 21st-century university, as opposed to nostalgia, the Anthony Timberlands Centre offers a unique opportunity to embrace the high ideals and ambitions of the university and the principles of the Fay Jones School. This project’s intrinsically modern character necessitates the application of best practices in both design and construction, as well as a highly speculative design process. When combined, the Anthony Centre will be ahead of its time and into the future, envisioning an interdisciplinary, diverse, and cooperative society that is humane, beautiful, and long-lasting. The Anthony Timberlands Centre’s concept represents the entire life cycle of wood, beginning with a sapling that develops on the building’s porches. It displays how wood is handled and processed, showcasing both conventional methods and cutting-edge research and innovation in the pursuit of a sustainable future that puts wood at the forefront (Williams, 2020). Grafton Architects designed a sustainable building, using a natural material and a staggered roof responding to the local climate and capturing natural light, as shown in the section of Fig. 15. According to the nature of wood as a renewable and sustainable building material, it was used in the construction of the Anthony Timberlands Centre at the University of Arkansas. To improve the building’s beauty and structural stability, more materials like steel and glass are included. Timber is the main material that defines the design of the building, while the exact details of the materials used in its construction may differ. Yvonne Farrell from Grafton Architects said that the users of the building shall experience the timber bones (structure of the building) and skin (the outer envelope). With its glulam beams, cross-laminated timber panels, black locust façade, and cypress sections, the Anthony Timberlands Centre’s symphony of wood seeks to create an encyclopaedic arrangement of local species, with Southern yellow pine being the most noticeable (Cogley, 2020).

3.6.6 Treatments

To face the challenges and variables of the twenty-first century, Grafton Architects decided to implement materials and elements in the centre:

● Creative use of wood combined with a low-carbon structure made of wood from nearby state forestry reserves.

● The building maximises the usage of Arkansas’s natural resources and innovative technologies.

● Sensitivity tests conducted in the construction industry using modern computerised technologies examined the structural effects of alterations made to the building’s geometry during the design phase.

● The stresses and strains shown by parametric modelling and finite element analysis are updated in real time as the geometry is adjusted.

● For this project, building information modelling (BIM) has been used early on. Data on the needs and sourcing of lumber is stored in a cloud-based database alongside structural data.

● The building’s materials and construction techniques were selected to increase their resistance to natural disasters and climate change. The centre is built with minimal impact on the environment and to resist severe weather.

3.6.7 Conclusion of case-study 6

Table 8 indicates the architect’s treatments to align and be resilient with the 21st-century variables and concludes the contemporary architectural trend.

3.7 Comparison between the six case-studies

The following comparison concludes the most effective variable on architecture now. As shown in Table 9, the architects of the six case studies tried to make intellectual efforts and applied certain treatments to withstand and to be aligned with the 21st-century variables.

Table 9 compares between the six case studies. It elaborates how these architectural projects respond to the new variables of the 21st century. The comparison indicates that the architectural design concepts have been developed and changed. Digitalisation-aided design became an essential tool, enabling architects to create new forms, consider the environmental factors, and design new structure systems. The six case studies cover most of the contemporary trends that emerged in the 21st century. From this table, certain remarks can be deduced as follows:

a. Design Generator: In the six projects, there are multiple factors controlling the design process that played the role of design generators.

- The extreme conditions forced Foster + Partners to follow a specific design system in case study 1 (Moon Village Habitat).

- The desire/intention for recalling memory was the design generator of case study 2 (Stone Garden Housing).

- Drawing a powerful image for a religious building, erected within a confused urban neighbourhood, was the main design generator for the architect.

- Adopting a sustainable design approach and para-metricism was noticeable in case study 4 (Sluishuis Housing Block) (Hilal et al., 2025) and case study 5 (Valley Mixed-Use Building). Architects of these two projects used the potential of digital programs to simulate the environmental conditions within the surrounding contexts.

- De-carbonising environment and using a sustainable system were the main design generators for case study 6 (Anthony Timberland Centre for Design & Innovation).

b. Building Form: The 21st-century variables play a significant role in shaping the forms of the six projects. Mostly, irregularity, complexity, and multiple grids are the common features of building form.

- Reconfiguration and flexibility of assembly forced the architect of case study 1 (Moon Village Habitat) to use simple geometry as circles, connected in a controlled system of insulation and protection.

- Ghotmeh used an irregular form in designing case study 2 (Stone Garden Housing) through meaningful light access through geometrical openings in elevations to remind people around with their collective memory about wars and conflicts, which took place in Beirut (Ghotmeh, 2025).

- In case study 3 (The Holy Redeemer Church), Menis used a bulky deconstructed form, leaving cracks to access meaningful rays of daylight. He resembled the cave form to recall a religious metaphor (Coulleri, 2022).

- In case study 4 (Sluishuis Housing Complex), BIG and Barcode Architects designed a neat block, subtracting a triangular form to allow maximum interaction with the waterfront.

- In case study 5 (Valley Mixed-Use Building), MVRDV innovated a new form of an extremely complicated composition of intertwined grids, creating a unique experience of living.

- Through a zigzag deconstructed roof, Grafton Architects used an irregular form to attract students to learn in the project of case study 6 (Anthony Timberland Centre for Design & Innovation).

c. Materials: Choosing low-carbon, recycled, and eco-friendly materials is a common action taken by the architects of the six projects. Decarbonising environment pushes architects and practitioners to choose certain materials, targeting durability, sustainability, and easy maintenance. Architects have chosen materials that withstand wind load, rainwater corrosion, and high temperatures.

d. Environmental Solutions: Excluding case study 1 (Moon Village Habitat), the architects of the five case studies used effective environmental solutions, integrating greenery as a natural source absorbing CO₂, releasing O₂, and mitigating air humidity. In addition, the architects used advanced digital simulation tools to choose the most optimised form orientation. For example, in case study 5, tens of simulation trials have been conducted to simulate sunrays, which helped design and provided the ideal positions of glass panels, openings, and balconies in elevations (Christodoulou et al., 2018).

Without a doubt, the architects of these projects made efforts in producing innovative architectural treatments to be resilient with the expected 21st-century variables. As a result, the concluded trends of these projects respectively are: Lunar Architecture and 3D Printed Habitat for case study 1, Preserving Identity and Memory and Resilient Architecture for case study 2, Neo-Brutalism for case study 3, Sustainable Architecture and Parametric Design Trend for case studies 4 and 5, and Sustainable Architecture — Passive Design — Resilient Architecture for case study 6. These trends have emerged as a reply to the mentioned six 21st-century variables.

4 Findings

Based on the previous analysis and the comparison, the architects of these projects implemented strategies to align with the 21st-century variables, using certain architectural treatments. These treatments concentrate on achieving adaptability, sustainability, and resilience through the following elements:

● Design geometry

● Building morphology

● Building envelope

● Design language

● Structure System

● Construction materials

● Building performance

● Digital aided design tools

● Integration with nature

● Relation with the surrounding urban context

In light of the 21st-century variables, architects should think wisely about the above elements. The architectural projects turned from just solid functional entities into mechanisms of services. With the emergence of all these variables, the field of architecture has radically changed. Accordingly, architectural trends have been developed, and others have newly emerged.

The paper may propose a theorisation chart as a new “evolution tree” tracing the contemporary architectural trends that have become known and widespread since 2000 up till now. In the next page, Fig. 16 demonstrates these trends within the variables.

5 Discussion and conclusion

In a quarter of a century, critics and theorists have written tens of articles and essays trying to trace the intertwined architectural trends, which were polarised and settled since 2000 and began to develop. The theorisation chart, shown in Fig. 16, is a serious attempt to theorise these trends, clarifying the different variables and characteristics of each trend. This evolutionary tree chart includes the intellectual catalysts that formulated and still formulate the contemporary architecture. Throughout 25 years (2000—2025), the chart traces the most prominent trends, demonstrating each trend’s renowned architects and design characteristics.

The 20th-century architecture revealed multiple design theories, starting with Form follows Function, passing by Form celebrates Structure, reaching Double-Code Theory, then Form follows Meaning, ending with Form follows Metaphor (Youssef, 2016). The architectural trends of Modernism Movement, which emerged at the first half of the 20th century, were influenced by “Form follows Function,” founded by (Sullivan, 2011). With the rise of the trends of Late-Modernism and Post-Modernism, this theory was questioned, re-investigated, and rethought. Eliezer Ntangu Ntieni questioned: Does Form really follow Function (Ntieni, 2025)? John Shannon Hendrix also tackles this theory, trying to unveil new philosophical perspectives that contradict it (Hendrix, 2013). The Italian product and design leader, Roberto Veronese, was directed to another theory, “Form follows Value” (Veronese, 2017). With the rise of Post-Modernism in the 1960s and 1970s, architecture witnessed radical change from functionalism towards semiotics, rhetoric, and metaphors. In his publications, Charles Jencks elaborated that the cornerstone theory of Post-Modern Architecture is “Double-Code” (Jencks, 2007). On parallel, Henri Lefebvre conducted studies on the importance of meaningful space through his renowned book “The Production of Space” (Lefebvre, 1992). Through Lefebvre’s research and insights, the theory of “Form follows Function” changed, within Post-Modernism, into “Form follows Meaning,” which has been discussed and analysed by Ng Keng Khoon on the scale of urban form and criticism (Ng, 2020) and by Perin Ruttonsha from the social point of view (Ruttonsha, 2016). After the intersection and complexity of post-modern architectural trends, Lefebvre’s theory was developed to “Form follows Metaphor,” which was tackled by the author of this paper in his book “Architecture and Metaphor” (Youssef, 2016).

From the chart (Fig. 16), it can be figured out that parametricism, BIM, VR, AI, Metaverse, space invasion, sustainability, climate change, and resilience are the new waves that have re-shaped the present of the 21st-century architecture, which aligns on parallel with the perspective of Patrik Shumacher in his book (Schumacher, 2011). Architects have applied these trends to face the variables of the 21st century. They had emerged due to the rise of new architectural theories such as: Form follows Technology, Form follows Energy, Form follows Information, Form follows Health, Form follows AI, and the most importantly, nowadays, Form follows Fears.

The artist Adrian Segal is convinced that digital data is now the main generator of form (Segal, 2020), which aligns with Marcos Novak’s motto “Everything melts into information” (Migayrou, 2003). Vande Moere Andrew believes in the importance of marriage between design and information visualisation. He emphasises the necessity of visual data as a generator of form (Andrew, 2005). The dark side of this track is the feeling of fear from technology. Published articles predicted that there will be an irreversible transition of machines, which anticipates the coming of the post-human era (Youvan, 2025). Recently, with the phenomena and crises happening around the world, people are living in real fear of what they may face. The economic crises, climate change, wars, natural hazards, and other unexpected occasions have forced architects to produce innovative solutions; thus, a new theory may emerge in this context, which is “Form follows Fears.” Resilience is one of the solutions. Kim Trogal explains that resilience will be a defining quality of the 21st century. According to her, we witness the turbulent effects of climate change, the multiple challenges of resource depletion, and wage stagnation (Trogal et al., 2018). Another face of fear is the fear of crime, which may affect the design of public places. According to Vania Ceccate and Mahesh Nalla, we need to activate an international urban safety agenda through applying a multidisciplinary approach that considers multiple fields of knowledge. According to them, urban patterns should be changed to be resilient to sudden crimes (Ceccato and Nalla, 2020). What supports the theory of “Form follows Fears” is the opinion of the two artists, Roberto Behar and Rosario Marquardt. They question: Do people catch themselves feeling too secure, private, in a public venue (Sokol, 2010)? Accordingly, on both architectural scale and urban scale, form should be adapted to withstand the new fears.

The variables in our lives have become unpredictable. Architects should make an effort to be ready for these changes.

This paper has delved into the realm of contemporary architecture within the intricate web of the 21st-century variables. Through a nuanced theoretical understanding, architects can not only proactively develop creative and sustainable architectural alternatives but also adapt to the challenges posed by zeitgeist factors.

The exploration has illuminated the crucial problem affecting the architectural environment, rooted in the complex deficiencies the world faces. By addressing these issues head-on, the aim to contribute to the documentation of new architectural trends was achieved, thereby enriching architectural theories and histories through the new architectural trend framework, shown in Fig. 16. Through these investigations, the research embraced innovative approaches, incorporated sustainable practices, and presented glimpses of innovative technologies. Architects can not only meet the needs of the present but also shape a more sustainable and resilient future for generations to come. Thus, this paper calls on architects to take action and engage deeply with the complexities of our time and to pioneer transformative solutions in the built environment. The concluded evolutionary chart may serve as a supportive guideline for architects, critics, and students to rethink the present and future of our 21st-century architecture.

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